Terms & Concepts for the AP US History Exam

Terms & Concepts for the AP US History Exam

1. Roanoke-English colony founded in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh. Consisted of 100 settlers who were given a charter by Queen Elizabeth I to settle American. All people of the colony returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, while Raleigh left to get reinforcements and supplies. Tried to settle there again in 1587 and all members of the colony disappeared (Lost Colony)

2. Virginia Company-The Virginia Company was formed with a charter from King James I in 1606. The Company was a joint stock corporation charged with the settlement of Virginia. It had the power to appoint the Council of Virginia, the Governor and other officials, and the responsibility to provide settlers, supplies and ships for the venture. The charter was revoked in 1624 and Virginia became a Crown Colony.

3. Jamestown-First successful English colony in the Americas. The settlers reached Virginia on May 14, 1607. They brought 214 settlers that were not ready to survive in an untamed land.

4. "starving time"- The years 1609-10 are known as the "Starving Time." Food was in such short supply that graves were robbed and corpses eaten. One colonist murdered his wife and feasted on her flesh. In 1610, with hope seeemingly extinguished, Jamestown was abandoned. The colonists boarded ships for the return trip to England. As their vessels prepared to clear the James River, a fleet appeared with reinforcements and supplies. The departing settlers were reluctantly persuaded to return to the colony.

5. House of Burgesses-In July 1619, a meeting of the House of Burgesses was held in Jamestown, the first such assembly in the Americas. The House of Burgesses was empowered to enact legislation for the colony, but its actions were subject to veto by the governor, council and ultimately by the directors in London. Voting for the burgesses was limited to landowning males over 17 years of age. The assembly comprised 22 members who represented the following constituencies:

a. The governor, who was appointed to his position by the company officials in London

b. The governor’s council, six prominent citizens selected by the governor

c. The burgesses (representatives) from various locales, initially the larger plantations and later in Virginia history from the counties.

6. Mayflower Compact- Arriving at what is now Provincetown, Mass., on Nov. 11 (Nov. 21, new-style calendar), 41 of the passengers signed the famous "Mayflower Compact" as the boat lay at anchor in that Cape Cod Harbor. The compact was an agreement to live and abide by the rules set forth by members of the colony.

7. Powhatan Confederacy-A group of Native North Americans belonging to the Algonquian branch. Their area embraced most of tidewater Virginia and the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay. Wahunsonacock, or Powhatan, as the English called him, was the leader of the confederacy when Jamestown was settled in 1607.

8. Royal Colony-A colony that is under the direct control of the ruling family from another country. The rulers select the leaders of the colony and can do with the colony what they wish. By the late 1600s, the king of England had taken control of most of the corporate colonies, including the Virginia, Plymouth, New York, and Massachusetts Bay Colonies. The king did this because the colonies had become too independent or were disobeying trade agreements and he felt he was losing control over them. Usually, the king appointed a governor to live in the colony and enforce laws and agreements. These governors often had difficulty getting the colonists to obey them. Because the governors were not elected by the people, they were often not very popular. The governors needed royal troops to help them enforce the king's laws.

9. Charter Colony-A colony that is under the indirect rule of the ruling family. A company or other organization are given permission by the ruling family to establish a colony without the interference of the royal family. The charter is simply a constitution of rights for the colonists to follow. The company owners are usually the leaders. Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Virginia were established with charters.

10. Joint-Stock Colony- Sometimes a number of people invested money in a company that planned to set up a colony in the New World. Each person who invested money owned a part of the company. Massachusetts Bay was a joint-stock colony established by the Massachusetts Bay Company.

11. Proprietary Colony- A type of settlement dominating the period 1660–90, in which favorites of the British Crown were awarded huge tracts of land in the New World to supervise and develop. Before this time most of the colonies had been financed and settled under the jurisdiction of joint stock companies.

12. Puritans- The Puritans were a group of people who grew discontent in the Church of England and worked towards religious, moral and societal reforms. The writings and ideas of John Calvin, a leader in the Reformation, gave rise to Protestantism and were pivotal to the Christian revolt. They contended that The Church of England had become a product of political struggles and man-made doctrines. The Puritans were one branch of dissenters who decided that the Church of England was beyond reform. Escaping persecution from church leadership and the King, they came to America. The Puritans believed that the Bible was God's true law, and that it provided a plan for living. The established church of the day described access to God as monastic and possible only within the confines of "church authority". Puritans stripped away the traditional trappings and formalities of Christianity which had been slowly building throughout the previous 1500 years. Theirs was an attempt to "purify" the church and their own lives.

13. Massachusetts Bay Colony- In 1628, group of distinguished Puritan businessmen formed a venture named the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay, which was initially conceived as a profit-making endeavor in the New World. A land grant was received from the Council of New England, the successor to the ineffective Virginia Company of Plymouth, providing rights to the area between the Charles and Merrimack rivers and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The colony was settled in 1630 by a group of about 1,000 Puritan refugees from England under Governor John Winthrop.

14. Great Migration- In the early 16th century to the mid-20th century more than 60 million people left Europe to seek new homes overseas. Ethnic groups included Africans, British, French, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, Irish and several others.

15. Plymouth Bay Colony- The Pilgrims founded Plymouth on Dec. 21, 1620, establishing a settlement that became the seat of Plymouth Colony in 1633 and a part of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691. The Pilgrims were English Separatists who founded (1620) Plymouth Colony in New England. In the first years of the 17th century, small numbers of English Puritans broke away from the Church of England because they felt that it had not completed the work of the Reformation. They committed themselves to a life based on the Bible. Most of these Separatists were farmers, poorly educated and without social or political standing

16. Maryland-Lord Baltimore was given the charter for founding in 1632, but founded the colony in 1634. Lord Baltimore was motivated both by the desire for profit and the desire to create a refuge for Roman Catholics who were still being persecuted in Protestant England.

17. Connecticut- Thomas Hooker and a group of Massachusetts colonists moved to what would become Connecticut because they were looking for more freedom and financial opportunities in 1635/1636. Colonists were moving into and starting towns in future Connecticut in 1635, but the main towns did not join together to form the Connecticut colony until 1636.

18. Rhode Island-Roger Williams was banished to England by the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his beliefs in separation of church and state and freedom of religion. He fled and lived with the Narragansett Indians and formed Providence in 1636. Anne Hutchinson was also banished for speaking out against the Church in Massachusetts Bay. She formed Portsmouth. Two other settlements arose and all four joined together with permission from England to form Providence Plantations – later called Rhode Island.

19. Pequot War-Battle between the peoples of New England and the Pequot Indians that took place in 1636-1637. This war led to the extermination of the Pequot Indians and their allies.

20. Anne Hutchinson-Puritan woman that was banished from the colony due to her differing religious beliefs and her outspokenness. She left Massachusetts Bay and moved to Rhode Island where she founded the city of Portsmouth in March of 1638.

21. Roger Williams-Founder of the Rhode Island colony in 1636. He was cast out of Massachusetts Bay for teaching religious tolerance and advocating the separation of church and state.

22. Maryland Toleration Act- In 1649, Maryland was the most religiously diverse of the English colonies, having been founded as a Catholic haven, and then populated by a large number of Protestants. While the Act did prevent outright persecution for a long time, it failed to prevent a political struggle over the control of the colonial assembly.

23. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- (1639) The first written constitution in North America. Adopted by the residents of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield, it was largely the work of Thomas Hooker, a Puritan clergyman. A plan for self-government of the colony, the orders put the welfare of the community above that of the individual, providing for the election of a governor, six assistants, and a legislative assembly to make laws.

24. New Amsterdam/New York- The Netherlands only controlled the Hudson River Valley from 1609 until 1664. Dutch entrepreneurs established New Netherland, a series of trading posts, towns, and forts up and down the Hudson River that laid the groundwork for towns that still exist today. In 1664, James, the Duke of York, received control of New Netherland. The name of the colony was changed to New York in honor of the Duke.

25. New Jersey- In 1664, James, the Duke of York, received control of New Netherland. He granted land to two of his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, that would become New Jersey. The two advertised and promised settlers many benefits for colonizing including representative government and freedom of religion. The colony quickly grew. Quakers eventually purchased both of their charters and created East and West Jersey, which were joined by the crown in 1702.

26. Carolina- In 1663, King Charles II issued a royal charter to eight nobles to settle the area south of Virginia. They created Carolina and included the previous settlement. However, because of internal problems, the crown took over the colony and formed North and South Carolina out of it in 1729.

27. King Philip’s War-The most devastating war between the colonists and the Native Americans in New England. It took place in 1675-1676. The war, which was extremely costly to the colonists in people and money, resulted in the virtual extermination of tribal Native American life in S New England and the disappearance of the fur trade. The war was named for the leader of the Wampanoags.

28. Bacon’s Rebellion-A popular revolt in colonial Virginia in 1676, led by Nathaniel Bacon. Many poor, landless, young men were tired of the attacks that Native Americans were perpetrating on the colonists.

29. Pennsylvania- Pennsylvania was settled as 1630 by Dutch pioneers who came up the Delaware Bay and River. Swedes began to arrive about 1631. King Charles II, in 1664, being unwilling to sanction the prosperity of the Dutch, as a separate community, granted patent to his brother James, Duke of York and Albany, all that the Dutch then held as their New Netherlands. The founding of Pennsylvania, about 40,000 square miles, was confirmed to William Penn under the Great Seal on the 5th of January 1681.

30. Dominion of New England- In 1686, all of New England was joined in an administrative merger by the British government, the Dominion of New England; two years later, New York and both New Jerseys were added. The northern colonies were unified for the purposes of defense and administrative control. The Dominion experienced little success, due largely to colonial interference.

31. Glorious Revolution in England- 1688 marked the end of absolutism and the beginning of Constitutional Government in England. The British Parliament gained more power and the royal family’s power declined.

32. Delaware- Peter Minuit was Dutch and formed New Sweden as part of New Netherland. When Charles II, King of England gave his brother James, the Duke of York, New Netherlands, he demanded and received its surrender. He renamed New Sweden to Delaware, although it remained a part of Pennsylvania until 1703. Peter Minuit and the New Sweden Company created Delaware (New Sweden) in 1638.

33. Georgia- In 1732, James Oglethorpe was given a charter from King George II to create a new colony which he would name Georgia. This was located between South Carolina and Florida. It had two main purposes: to serve as a place where debtors in prison could go to start anew and it served as a barrier against Spanish expansion from Florida.

34. Harvard- Harvard College was established in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was named for its first benefactor, John Harvard of Charlestown, a young minister who, upon his death in 1638, left his library and half his estate to the new institution.

35. Halfway Covenant- In 1662 a Massachusetts synod agreed that, for all churches, a "half-way" membership status would be recognized. Adults who had been baptized as children but who had not yet experienced the conversion necessary for full membership could nonetheless have their children baptized. The parents in return were to agree to maintain the church's standards of moral conduct. Until conversion, however, these parents and their children were ineligible to vote in church affairs or take communion.

36. Salem Witchcraft Trials-Trial in Massachusetts in 1692. people are accused of bewitching children. The accusations began in 1688. As events unfolded, 185 people were accused at Salem, 141 women and 44 men. Of that number, 52 women and 7 men were tried; 26 women and 5 men were convicted; and 14 women and 5 men were executed, the last group on September 22, 1692.

37. Scotch-Irish- Many thousands of Scots-Irish immigrants came prior to 1776, with large-scale immigration beginning in 1718. Immigration to America was at a standstill during the American Revolution (1775-1783), but following the Revolution many Scots-Irish continued to come to the United States.

38. Yale- Founded in 1701 in New Haven, Connecticut. A tool to help the population of the US become more educated if they can afford it.

39. Great Awakening- What historians call "the first Great Awakening" can best be described as a revitalization of religious piety that swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and the 1770s. That revival was part of a much broader movement, an evangelical upsurge taking place simultaneously on the other side of the Atlantic, most notably in England, Scotland, and Germany. In all these Protestant cultures during the middle decades of the eighteenth century, a new Age of Faith rose to counter the currents of the Age of Enlightenment, to reaffirm the view that being truly religious meant trusting the heart rather than the head, prizing feeling more than thinking, and relying on biblical revelation rather than human reason.

40. College of William & Mary- Founded in 1693, William and Mary is the second oldest educational institution in the U.S. The creation of the school shows the dedication that early colonists had towards education, especially those at the upper end of the social ladder.

41. John Peter Zenger case- John Peter Zenger arrived in New York from Germany in 1710 and served as an apprentice to William Bradford, printer of the New York Gazette. In 1733, New York Colonial Governor William Cosby stirred up a great controversy by prosecuting the interim Governor, Rip Van Dam, and removing Chief Justice Lewis Morris from the courts. After Governor Cosby adopted the measures against these men, an opposition group arose to fight him politically. These wealthy and powerful men established an opposition newspaper, the New York Weekly Journal, and hired John Peter Zenger as the printer and editor. The Weekly Journal printed numerous articles critical of Governor Cosby until Cosby could take it no longer. In November 1734, Cosby had Zenger arrested and put in jail without contact for ten months. On August 4, 1735, Zenger was brought to trial and charged with seditious libel. He was defended by Philadelphia lawyer, Andrew Hamilton. The prosecution argued that the sole fact of publication was sufficient to convict and barred the truth from the evidence. Hamilton admitted that Zenger published the stories, but denied that it was libel unless it was false.

42. Stono Rebellion- Early on the morning of Sunday, September 9, 1739, 20 black slaves met in secret near the Stono River in South Carolina to plan their escape to freedom. Minutes later, they burst into Hutcheson's store at Stono's bridge, killed the two storekeepers, and stole the guns and powder inside. The group of slaves grew in number as they headed south. Stono's Rebellion was the largest slave uprising in the Colonies prior to the American Revolution.

43. Regulators Uprising-Mainly poor farmers in the Carolinas in 1769-1770 that were protesting unfair government practices, such as high taxes, lack of protection from natives, and low prices for farm goods.

44. King William’s War 1689-1697- King William’s War was the first in a series of colonial conflicts between France and England for supremacy in North America. The major goal, other than prestige, was the control of the fur trade. All of these struggles had European counterparts that were often of greater significance than the American events. "King William" refers to William III of England, the new monarch imported from the Netherlands at the time of the Glorious Revolution in 1688-89. The new king allied himself with the League of Augsburg (certain German states, Spain and Sweden) to oppose the French expansion. The Austrians and the Dutch also joined the fray against Louis XIV in the European phase of the conflict

45. Queen Anne’s War 1702-1713- In 1702, Europe was again convulsed in war, this time over the issue of succession to the Spanish throne. In North America, the fighting involved not only the British and French in the north, but also the British against the Spanish in the south. Like the previous conflict (King William’s War), the French and their Algonquian allies staged a series of devastating raids in Western New England. Hostilities in the south were highlighted by the British capture of Saint Augustine in Spanish Florida and by a failed Spanish attack against Charleston, South Carolina. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ended the European and North American conflicts. The British received Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland and fur trading posts in the Hudson Bay area. France managed to retain several islands in the Saint Lawrence River and Cape Breton Island at the northeastern end of Nova Scotia.

46. "Salutary Neglect"-Salutary neglect refers to the state of Anglo-American relations before the end of the French and Indian War. British Parliament did not interfere in the government of the colonies, and America existed in relative political isolation.

47. King George’s War 1744-1748- The third in a series of Anglo-French colonial conflicts in North America, King George’s War had been preceded by an outbreak of fighting in Europe. The death of Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor, had touched off a succession crisis that pitted France, Prussia and Spain against the British. Warfare developed in the American colonies in 1744 when the French attacked a British position at Canso, Nova Scotia, destroying a fortification and transporting prisoners to the French stronghold at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. The French also attempted to recapture Port Royal (Annapolis Royal), but failed. Peace was achieved with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

48. Albany Congress- Representatives of seven colonies of British North America met in Albany, New York, in 1754, at the outbreak of the French and Indian War. The Board of Trade, the organ of the British government responsible for the colonies, called the congress to unify the colonists in the face of the threat of war.

49. Albany Plan of Union-(1754), first plan for uniting the colonies, proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress. Franklin's Albany Plan proposed a loose confederation of colonies with a representative grand council with power to levy taxes, raise troops, regulate Indian trade, and provide mutual defense. The crown-appointed council head would have final say about American affairs. To make his point, Franklin published in his Pennsylvania Gazette a sketch of a snake divided into eight pieces, each representing a colony, and entitled it "Join or Die." Although the congress adopted the Albany Plan, it was rejected by the colonial governments and by the British. It served as an important model for intercolonial union.

50. French and Indian War- The French and Indian War (also known as the "Seven Years War") saw the British pitted against the French, the Austrians, and the Spanish. The early period of the war saw localized action in North America and began with Washington's loss at Fort Necessity. Neither side committed much in the way of troop strength or resources to the effort. Most of the action was confined to attempts to capture the opponent's fortified positions on the frontier. A middle phase began with the declaration of war between France and Britain, and touched off the first true world war (Seven Years’ War). The North American conflict might well have remained a localized affair, but a realignment of European alliances ignited new rivalries to add to the simmering feud between Britain and France. A final phase was highlighted by the British decision to concentrate on the North American phase of the conflict. The investment of huge sums of money and innovative new military talent helped to provide the margin of victory. Treaty of Paris in 1763 ends the war.

51. Treaty of Paris 1763-

52. King George III- King George III sat upon the throne of England from 1760-1820. It was on his watch that the American colonies were lost. George III inherited more than just the throne. He also had the royal hereditary disease porphyria which had afflicted Mary Queen of Scots. She passed it to her son, King James I of England. Porphyria is caused by the insufficient production of hemoglobin. The symptoms are photosensitivity, strong abdominal pain, port wine colored urine and paralysis in the arms and legs. The interruption of nerve impulses to the brain causes the development of psychiatric symptoms. Finally, epileptic convulsions occur and the patient sinks into a coma. George III's  first attack occurred in 1765, four years after his marriage to Queen Charlotte.  From 1811 to the time of his death in 1820 he became progressively insane and blind.

53. Sugar Act-The Sugar Act levied taxes against colonial sugar for the purpose of financing the large British military presence in North America that was necessary to protect the colonies from the French and Spanish on April 5, 1764. The Sugar Act also provided for more effective control over colonial trade and allowed customs officials to require suspected smugglers to stand trial in a vice-admiralty court in Halifax, Nova Scotia (Canada).

54. Currency Act-Parliament passed the Currency Act to soothe British merchants, who complained about the colonies' issuance of worthless paper currency. By extending to the rest of the colonies the Currency Act of 1751, which had applied only to the New England colonies, the Act restricted any further issuance of paper currency and required that all such currency in circulation eventually be retired.

55. Stamp Act- In 1765 King George the Third passed the Stamp Act to regain money from fighting the French and Indian War. The Stamp Act made the colonists pay taxes on various items such as paper, legal  documents, newspapers, ships papers,  other publications, and even playing cards.

The Colonists  would  use the stamps by putting them on the items listed above. Colonists would buy the stamps from a stamp commissioner.  The colonists didn't want to pay taxes so they boycotted goods until the King repealed the Stamp Act on March 18, 1766.

56. Quartering Act- On June 2, 1774 new legislation required the colonies to provide soldiers with living accommodations in their private homes along with using public facilities, such as inns, taverns, and unused buildings.

57. Stamp Act Congress- The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting in October of 1765 of delegates from the British American Colonies that discussed and acted upon the recently passed Stamp Act. The meetings adopted a Declaration of Rights and wrote letters or petitions to the King and both houses of Parliament. This Congress is viewed by some as the first American action in or as a precursor of the American Revolution.

58. Sons of Liberty- During the Parliamentary debate over the Stamp Act (1765), Isaac Barré referred to the American opponents of the new tax as the "Sons of Liberty". Secret radical groups in the colonies adopted this name and worked to oppose the stamp tax and other later parliamentary revenue programs.

59. Declaratory Act- (March 18, 1766), an act passed by the British Parliament after repeal of the Stamp Act. The act stated that the king and Parliament had the right and power to make laws that were binding on the colonies "in all cases whatsoever," even though American colonists were unrepresented in Parliament.

60. Townshend Acts- The Townshend Acts were a series of measures introduced into Parliament by Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend in 1767. The acts imposed duties on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea imported into the colonies and created a Board of Customs Commissioners to enforce customs laws without the accused having recourse to a trial by jury. Townshend hoped the acts would defray imperial expenses in the colonies. Because Benjamin Franklin and other Americans in Britain had argued against Parliament's power to impose the Stamp Act on the ground that it was a direct tax, British leaders convinced themselves that the colonists would accept so-called indirect taxes such as import duties, a wishful misunderstanding of colonial opinion.

61. Boston Massacre- The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770. A squad of British soldiers, come to support a sentry who was being pressed by a heckling, snowballing crowd, let loose a volley of shots. Three persons were killed immediately and two died later of their wounds; among the victims was Crispus Attucks, a man of black or Indian parentage. The British officer in charge, Capt. Thomas Preston, was arrested for manslaughter, along with eight of his men. In an effort to demonstrate the impartiality of colonial courts, two Patriot leaders, John Adams and Josiah Quincy, volunteered to defend Captain Preston and his men. The prosecution produced little evidence, and Preston and six of the soldiers were acquitted; two others were found guilty of manslaughter, branded on the hand, and released. Although many Patriots criticized the verdicts and the anniversary of the Boston Massacre became a patriotic holiday, the removal of troops from Boston and the repeal of all but one of the contested import duties resulted in a lowering of tension in the years following the incident.

62. Gaspee Incident- The burning of the British naval cutter, the Gaspée by the citizens of Rhode Island was an outstanding example of colonial opposition to the enforcement of the Trade and Navigation Acts in the events that led up to the American War of Independence. On the night of 9 June 1772, the Gaspée ran aground a few miles from Providence.  Early the next morning the ship was boarded, the crew was put ashore and the ship was burned. The captain was arrested by a local sheriff for 'illegal' seizure of casks of rum and sugar: he stood three trials and lost them all. 

63. Committees of Correspondence-Committees of Correspondence were the American colonies' first institution for maintaining communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution, when the deteriorating relationship with Great Britain made it increasingly important for the colonies to share ideas and information. In 1764, Boston formed the earliest Committee of Correspondence, writing to other colonies to encourage united opposition to Britain's recent stiffening of customs enforcement and prohibition of American paper money.

64. Tea Act- The Tea Act, passed by Parliament in May of 1773, would launch the final spark to the revolutionary movement in Boston. The act was not intended to raise revenue in the American colonies, and in fact imposed no new taxes. It was designed to prop up the East India Company, which was floundering financially and burdened with eighteen million pounds of unsold tea. This tea was to be shipped directly to the colonies, and sold at a bargain price. The Townshend Duties were still in place, however, and the radical leaders in America found reason to believe that this act was a maneuver to buy popular support for the taxes already in force. The direct sale of tea, via British agents, would also have undercut the business of local merchants.

65. Boston Tea Party- The Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773, took place when a group of Massachusetts Patriots, protesting the monopoly on American tea importation recently granted by Parliament to the East India Company, seized 342 chests of tea in a midnight raid on three tea ships and threw them into the harbor

66. Intolerable Acts- The Coercive Acts were four laws passed by Parliament in the spring of 1774 to punish Massachusetts for its continuing resistance to parliamentary rule (in particular, the Boston Tea Party). The Boston Port Bill declared Boston Harbor closed until the East India Company and the customs office had been reimbursed for their Tea Party losses. The Administration of Justice Act permitted British soldiers and Crown officials in Massachusetts to be tried in England rather than in provincial courts if they were charged with a capital crime committed while quelling a riot or collecting revenue. The Massachusetts Government Act virtually annulled the colony's charter, significantly curtailing town meetings and changing most high elective offices in the province to appointments by the king or governor. The Quartering Act (the only one applicable to all the colonies) legalized billeting troops in people's homes.

67. First Continental Congress- The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, September 5-October 26, 1774, to develop a common colonial response to the Coercive Acts recently passed by Parliament. An advisory council rather than an empowered legislature, the Congress (as it came to be called) included delegates from twelve of the American colonies; Georgia did not participate. Congress advised each colony to form a militia, organized an association to enforce strict economic sanctions against Britain, and recommended that Massachusetts, the focus of the Coercive Acts, form an independent government. After issuing addresses to the king and to the British and American people, the delegates agreed to meet again in May 1775 if their grievances had not been resolved.

68. Second Continental Congress- By the time the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, fighting had taken place at Lexington and Concord. Congress quickly assumed responsibility for coordinating the rebellion, starting with the raising of a Continental army. A year later Congress took the final step toward separation by officially adopting the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

69. Valley Forge-Valley Forge - 25 miles from the Philadelphia- was the choice of George Washington as a camp for the winter of 1777. It is a high plateau that was easy to defend. One side is protected by the river. Two shallow creeks provide natural barriers that would present problems for attacking cavalry and artillery. Any attackers would have to charge up-hill. Many soldiers died due to exposure and a variety of illnesses.

70. Franco-American alliance-An agreement between the French and colonists for aid during the War for Independence. French soldiers were recruited to train and lead American troops.

71. Thomas Paine- (1737-1809) A political philosopher and writer during the era of the War for Independence. His writings remain classic statements of the egalitarian, democratic faith of the Age of Revolution.

72. Common Sense- The political pamphlet Common Sense was published in 1776 calling for American colonists to rebel against the British monarchy and proclaim their independence. Its author was Thomas Paine who had recently arrived in Philadelphia from England. It helped persuade the majority of colonists to back the independence movement.

73. Declaration of Independence- Drafted by Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776, the Declaration of Independence is at once the nation's most cherished symbol of liberty and Jefferson's most enduring monument. Here, in exalted and unforgettable phrases, Jefferson expressed the convictions in the minds and hearts of the American people. The political philosophy of the Declaration was not new; its ideals of individual liberty had already been expressed by John Locke and the Continental philosophers.

74. Articles of Confederation-(1781-1788), the first written constitution of the United States, superseded by the Constitution in 1788.

a. Establishes the name of the confederation as "The United States of America"

b. Explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled

c. Establishes the United States as a league of states united "...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them..."

d. Anyone can pass freely between states (excluding fugitives from the law) and be entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be transported to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.

e. Allocates one vote in Congress to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years.

f. Limits the powers of states to conduct foreign relations and to declare war.

g. When an army is raised for common defense, officers below the rank of general will be named by the state legislatures.

h. Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each.

i. Defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.

j. Defines a Committee of the States to be a government when Congress is not in session.

k. Sets rules for new states requiring nine state approval, preapproves Canada, if they apply for membership.

l. Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the articles.

m. Declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by ALL state legislatures.

75. British Proclamation of 1763-In the fall of 1763, a royal decree was issued that prohibited the North American colonists from establishing or maintaining settlements west of an imaginary line running down the crest of the Appalachian Mountains. The proclamation acknowledged that Native Americans owned the lands on which they were then residing and white settlers in the area were to be

removed.

 

76. Treaty of Paris 1783- The Continental Congress ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784, officially establishing the United States as in independent and sovereign nation. The Continental Congress approved preliminary articles of peace on April 15, 1783. The treaty, signed in Paris on September 3, 1783, required Congress to return the ratified document to England within six months. The Treaty of Paris granted the United States territory as far west as the Mississippi River, but reserved Canada to Great Britain. Fisheries in Newfoundland remained available to Americans and navigation of the Mississippi River was open to both parties. Congress promised to recommend states return confiscated loyalist property, but they had no power to enforce this demand. Creditors in both countries were free to pursue collection of debts.

77. Land Ordinance of 1785- (May 20), establishment of a system for surveying and subdividing public land outside the states. Passed by the Congress of the Articles of Confederation, the statute provided for the surveying of blocks of land thirty-six square miles each, to be known as townships. Each township was to set aside one section for public education and schools, with each block or section containing 640 acres. Congress established the prices at which the land was to be sold to the public.

78. Northwest Ordinance of 1787- The Northwest Ordinance, approved by Congress on July 13, 1787, delineated rules for governing the Old Northwest, the area lying north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi. Thomas Jefferson had written the first ordinance for the territory three years earlier, calling for a division of the region into states. Each was to have the same political powers as the original thirteen states and was to prohibit slavery after 1800. The ordinance was adopted in April 1784, but it had not been instituted because no settlers held legal title yet. The new law, primarily written by Rufus King and Nathan Dane of Massachusetts, called for dividing the area into several territories, but specified that each would be administered initially by a governor, a secretary, and three judges, all appointed by Congress. Whenever a district reached a population of five thousand free males, it could elect a bicameral legislature and send a nonvoting member to Congress. When its population reached sixty thousand free inhabitants (Jefferson had set the figure at twenty thousand), the district would be eligible for statehood. The ordinance guaranteed freedom of religion, trial by jury, and public support for education. It also provided that slavery was to be prohibited in the territory.

79. Shays’s Rebellion- Shays' Rebellion is the name given to a series of protests in 1786 and 1787 by American farmers against state and local enforcement of tax collections and judgments for debt. Although farmers took up arms in states from New Hampshire to South Carolina, the rebellion was most serious in Massachusetts, where bad harvests, economic depression, and high taxes threatened farmers with the loss of their farms. The rebellion took its name from its symbolic leader, Daniel Shays of Massachusetts, a former captain in the Continental army.

80. Constitutional Convention of 1787- The year was 1787. The place: the State House in Philadelphia, the same location where the Declaration of Independence had been signed 11 years earlier. For four months, 55 delegates from the several states met to frame a Constitution for a federal republic that would last into "remote futurity."

81. Federalist Papers- The Federalist Papers were a series of articles written under the pen name of Publius by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. The entire purpose of The Federalist Papers was to gain popular support for the then-proposed Constitution. Some would call it the most significant public-relations campaign in history.

82. Judiciary Act of 1789- This act of the First Congress established the structure of the federal judiciary, the basic structure of which has remained intact. The Constitution stipulated only that the federal court system should consist of (1) a Supreme Court having original jurisdiction in certain cases and (2) "such inferior Courts as the Congress may ... establish." Congress could have declined to create lower courts, making state courts rule first on almost all federal issues. The 1789 act created two lower levels of courts. Federal district courts, each with a district judge, composed the lowest level. Every federal district also fell within the circuit of one of the three second-level courts, the circuit courts. In addition to creating courts, the 1789 act granted the Supreme Court a controversial power to order federal officials to carry out their legal responsibilities.

83. Hamilton’s report on Public Credit- Hamilton’s Report on Public Credit supported ideas of war debt assumption, redemption of Confederate securities at face value, and funding of new national securities as a permanent national debt, in order to enhance the revenue and fiscal system of the national government, creating a large body to which many wealthy citizens would belong and support, bringing about its prosperity. Jeffersonians thought that, because the public credit system was focused on the wealthy class, it would give them power over the agricultural, lower class which made up the majority of the population, thereby denying democratic ideals. Hamilton believed that a national bank would make loans, handle government funds, issue financial notes, provide national currency, and overall considerably help the national government to accurately and efficiently govern financially.

84. Hamilton’s report on Manufacturers-Hamilton supported the notion that a society based on manufacturing or the production of goods could make it independent and powerful. In addition to national independence, manufacturing would provide a path to equality in the global market. Hamilton wanted a dual system of agriculture and manufacturing. To achieve this he advocated tariffs and duties on foreign goods, inventions, and development of industries. He wrote it on December 5, 1791.

85. First Bank of the United States- The First Bank of the United States was needed because the government had a debt from the Revolutionary War, and each state had a different form of currency. It was built while Philadelphia was still the nation's capital. Alexander Hamilton conceived of the bank to handle the colossal war debt — and to create a standard form of currency. Up to the time of the bank's charter, coins and bills issued by state banks served as the currency of the young country. The First Bank's charter was drafted in 1791 by the Congress and signed by George Washington. In 1811, Congress voted to abandon the bank and its charter. The bank was originally housed in Carpenters' Hall from 1791 to 1795.

86. Bill of Rights-The first tem amendments to the Constitution that spells out the rights of individuals and small groups.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people

87. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation- The outbreak of the French revolution coincided with the beginning of Washington's first administration, but by 1793 warfare had engulfed Europe, pitting England, Prussia, Austria and Spain against the new French Republic. In the cabinet Jefferson opposed any expression of neutrality while Hamilton supported it. Washington eventually sided with the latter and issued a proclamation of neutrality that barred American ships from supplying war material to either side.

88. Citizen Genet- "Citizen Genet," as he was called, was an ambassador sent to our government by the French Republic, arrived at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, 1793. He came to solicit help for the French against the British and Austria.

89. Jay’s Treaty- Relations with Britain, still smarting from the loss of her colonies, worsened in the early 1790s. From the American perspective, issues included seizure from American ships of cargoes unrelated to war, impressment of American seamen and continuing British occupation of western posts within U.S. borders. In 1794, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay was dispatched to England to seek solutions. The resulting agreement stirred up heated passions within the cabinet with Hamilton supporting the agreement and Jefferson opposing it. Key provisions included:

1. The withdrawal of British soldiers from posts in the American West

2. A commission to be established to settle outstanding border issues between the U.S. and Canada

3. A commission to be established to resolve American losses in British ship seizures and Loyalist losses during the War for Independence.

90. Chisholm v. Georgia- In 1777, the Executive Council of Georgia authorized the purchase of needed supplies from a South Carolina businessman. After receiving the supplies, Georgia did not deliver payments as promised. After the merchant's death, the executor of his estate, Alexander Chisholm, took the case to court in an attempt to collect from the state. Georgia maintained that it was a sovereign state not subject to the authority of the federal courts. In a 4-to-1 decision (2/5-2/18/1793), the justices held that "the people of the United States" intended to bind the states by the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of the national government. The Court held that supreme or sovereign power was retained by citizens themselves, not by the "artificial person" of the State of Georgia. The Constitution made clear that controversies between individual states and citizens of other states were under the jurisdiction of federal courts. State conduct was subject to judicial review.

91. Whiskey Rebellion- This 1794 insurrection was caused, in part, by the lack of federal courts (which necessitated trips to Philadelphia for trial), large numbers of absentee landlords, lack of protection from the Indians, lack of access to the Mississippi River and the high excise tax on whiskey. Farmers made up the mob of people. President George Washington ordered 12,000 to 13,000 troops to the Washington Pennsylvania area to put down the rebellion. This was the first test of the power of the new government.

92. Pinckney’s Treaty- One of the most important diplomatic aims of the Washington administration was to secure recognition of American borders from the great powers. Thomas Pinckney, U.S. minister to Britain, was dispatched to Spain and won two highly desirable concessions:

1. Spain recognized U.S. borders at the Mississippi and the 31st parallel (the northern border of Florida, a Spanish possession)

2. Spain granted Americans the right to deposit goods for transshipment at New Orleans.

93. Washington’s Farewell Address- To announce his decision not to seek a third term as President, George Washington presented his Farewell Address in a newspaper article September 17, 1796. Frustrated by French meddling in U.S. politics,

Washington warned the nation to avoid permanent alliances with foreign nations and to rely instead on temporary alliances for emergencies. Washington's efforts to protect the fragile young republic by steering a neutral course between England and France during the French Revolutionary Wars was made extremely difficult by the intense rhetoric flowing from the pro-English Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the pro-French, personified by Thomas Jefferson.

94. John Adams-He was elected as our second President in 1796. Adams was a Federalist & this made him an arch-rival of Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party. The discord between Adams and Jefferson surfaced many times during Adams' (and, later, Jefferson's) presidency. This was not a mere party contest. The struggle was over the nature of the office and on the limits of Federal power over the state governments and individual citizens. Adams retired from office at the end of his term in 1801.

95. XYZ Affair- The name usually given to an incident (1797–98) in Franco-American diplomatic relations. The United States had in 1778 entered into an alliance with France, but after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars was both unable and unwilling to lend aid. Negotiations were carried on through Jean Conrad Hottinguer and Lucien Hauteval, both Swiss, and a Mr. Bellamy, an American banker in Hamburg; the three were designated X, Y, and Z in the mission's dispatches to the United States. The proposal that the Americans pay Talleyrand about $250,000 before the French government would even deal with them created an uproar when it was released in the United States, where the pro-British party welcomed the chance to worsen Franco-American relations. The U.S. representatives made no progress and the mission broke up.

96. Alien and Sedition Acts- Under the threat of war with France, Congress in 1798 passed four laws in an effort to strengthen the Federal government. Known collectively as the Alien and Sedition Acts, the legislation sponsored by the Federalists was also intended to quell any political opposition from the Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson.

a. Naturalization Act-passed by Congress on June 18. This act required that aliens be residents for 14 years instead of 5 years before they became eligible for U.S. citizenship.

b. Alien Act-passed on June 25, authorizing the President to deport aliens "dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States" during peacetime.

c. Alien Enemies Act-was enacted by Congress on July 6. This act allowed the wartime arrest, imprisonment and deportation of any alien subject to an enemy power.

d. Sedition Act-passed on July 14 declared that any treasonable activity, including the publication of "any false, scandalous and malicious writing," was a high misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment.

97. Viriginia and Kentucky Resolves- Since Congress was firmly controlled by the Federalists, the fight against the Alien and Sedition Acts moved to the state legislatures in late 1798. James Madison prepared the Virginia Resolutions and Thomas Jefferson wrote the Kentucky Resolutions. Both followed a similar argument: The states had the duty to nullify within their borders those laws that were unconstitutional. Nothing concrete resulted from the passage of these resolutions; no other states followed with similar actions. The death of Washington in 1799 helped to quiet tempers, and the Alien and Sedition Acts soon expired or were repealed. However, the issue of nullification had been put on the table.

98. Undeclared naval war with France-The XYZ Affair of 1798 led to an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The incident had its beginnings during the administration of George Washington, who angered the French by concluding Jay's Treaty (1794) with Britain and seeking (1796) to replace the American minister in Paris, James Monroe, who had been friendly to the principles of the French Revolution.

99. Adam’s "midnight judges"-Judicial appointments made by John Adams just before the end of his presidential term in 1801. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created sixteen federal judgeships. Adams appointed Federalists who opposed the Democratic-Republican principles of his successor, Thomas Jefferson. Many of the papers were signed just before midnight as a gesture of antagonism toward Jefferson, who called the men "midnight judges." Jefferson did not want to recognize the appointments, eventually leading to the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801 and the landmark Marbury v. Madison, case.

100. Tripoli War-A conflict between the United States and Tripoli (now in Libya), incited by American refusal to continue payment of tribute to the piratical rulers of the North African Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis, Morocco, and Tripoli; this practice had been customary among European nations and the nascent United States in exchange for immunity from attack on merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. The combination of a strong American naval blockade and an overland expedition from Egypt finally brought the war to a close, with a treaty of peace (June 4, 1805) favorable to the United States.

101. Marbury v. Madison- (1803) is a landmark case in United States law wherein the U.S. Supreme Court established judicial review as a legitimate power of the Court on constitutional grounds. The Court ruled that it had the power to declare a statute void that it considered in contravention to the Constitution. Marbury established the judiciary—and in particular, the Supreme Court—as an equal partner among the three branches of the American federal government. Marbury's commission, as well as that of others who were part of the lawsuit, was signed by Adams and John Marshall, his Secretary of State. As a complication of matters, Marshall had been appointed as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on February 4, but had continued to act as Secretary of State until Jefferson was inaugurated. On March 3, Marshall became Chief Justice, and swore in Jefferson. Jefferson treated as void the 42 commissions approved on Inauguration Day, including Marbury's, because they had not been officially delivered by day's end. He appointed James Madison as the new Secretary, and ordered him not to deliver the Marbury commission.

102. John Marshall- (1755-1835), chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Marshall, who had almost no formal schooling and studied law for only six weeks, nevertheless remains the only judge in American history whose distinction as a statesman derived almost entirely from his judicial career. Adams appointed him secretary of state and in 1801 chief justice, a position he held until death. During Marshall's thirty-four years as chief justice, he gave content to the Constitution's omissions, clarified its ambiguities, and added breathtaking sweep to the powers it conferred.

103. Lewis and Clark-Explored the Louisiana Territory for Jefferson and the US, after it was acquired from France in 1803.

104. Burr-Hamilton Duel- A duel fought in 1804 between Aaron Burr, vice president of the United States, and Alexander Hamilton, former secretary of the treasury. The two had been bitter political opponents for years. Burr shot and killed Hamilton.

105. "Revolution of 1800"- Jefferson's election in 1800 was considered revolutionary. It represents the change from Federalist leadership to Republican and the change was entirely legal and bloodless. Nevertheless, the changes were profound. The Federalists lost control of both the presidency and the Congress. Jefferson's mere presence in The White House encouraged democratic behavior. White House guests were encouraged to shake hands with the president, rather than bowing as had been the Federalist practice. Guests at state dinners were seated at round tables, which emphasized a sense of equality. He taught his subordinates to regard themselves merely as trustees of the people. He encouraged agriculture and westward expansion. Believing America to be a haven for the oppressed, he urged a liberal naturalization law.

106. British Orders in Council- In British government, orders given by the sovereign on the advice of all or some of the members of the privy council, without the prior consent of Parliament. Orders in council, first so named in the 18th cent., are based either on royal prerogative or on statutory authority. The prerogative allows an order in council to be used to ratify a treaty, to declare the end of a state of war, or to appoint civil service commissioners, but as a vehicle of royal power such an order no longer has any utility. Orders in council are authorized by statute in situations where a possible emergency is contemplated in which routine legislative procedure might be take too long. The most important use of this administrative device has been in time of war.

107. Chesapeake Affair- U.S. frigate, famous for her role in the Chesapeake affair (June 22, 1807) and for her battle with the H.M.S. Shannon (June 1, 1813). The Chesapeake left Norfolk, Va., for the Mediterranean under the command of James Barron in June, 1807. Just outside U.S. territorial waters the H.M.S. Leopard stopped her and demanded the right to search her for British deserters. Barron refused to allow this, and shortly afterward the Leopard opened fire. Unprepared for action, Barron was forced to submit and allow the impressment of four of his crew (two of whom were American-born). The incident caused intense indignation, and war seemed imminent.

108. Embargo Act of 1807- This act was passed by Congress to protest British and French interference with American neutral shipping during the Napoleonic Wars. Thomas Jefferson imposed the embargo, which prohibited all exports. Since foreign ships would be forced to depart empty, the act also effectively limited imports. The president hoped that economic pressure would persuade the British and French to moderate their maritime policies. Further, he believed that keeping ships in American ports would prevent further violations of national honor. Instead, the embargo caused costly disruptions of the American economy and forced no concessions. American merchants evaded it just as they had ignored British trade restrictions before the Revolution

109. Nonintercourse Act-An extension of the Embargo of 1807. On Mar. 1, 1809, the Nonintercourse Act allowed all commercial trade with any European country except Britain and France.

110. Force Act-(May 1, 1810), law enacted by Congress during the Napoleonic Wars to motivate Great Britain and France, then at war, to cease illegal seizures of American commercial vessels. Macon's Bill affirmed American trade with all countries but would ban trade with either France or Great Britain unless seizure of neutral ships stopped. This bill replaced the Non-Intercourse Act but failed to stop the seizure of ships.

111. Battle of Tippecanoe-William Henry Harrison was governor of the Indiana Territory and superintendent of the Northwest Indians. Fearing the growing strength of Tecumseh’s confederacy, Harrison decided to strike quickly. He marched an army of 1,100 men along the Wabash toward Prophet’s Town. Tecumseh was temporarily out of the area on a recruiting venture among the Creeks in the south, but his brother, The Prophet, prepared the men for battle with fiery oratory—including promises that they could not be harmed by the white men’s bullets. Shortly before dawn on November 7, 1811, Harrison’s soldiers were attacked. After a two-hour battle, the natives were forced to flee and their village-the gathering spot of the confederacy-was destroyed. Some military historians regard the Battle of Tippecanoe as a draw, but note that it held important ramifications:

 

· The safety of the white settlements in the Indiana Territory became markedly improved.

· The Prophet was discredited as a leader because of his inability to ensure the promised invincibility from the opponents' bullets and also because he had violated Tecumseh's earlier counsel to hold off any armed confrontation until his return.

· The confederation of the eastern tribes disintegrated.

· The bitterly disappointed Tecumseh, who did not return to Indiana for another three months, remained an implacable foe of the American settlers. He would later become allied with the British and participate in the War of 1812.

· William Henry Harrison emerged with a reputation as the hero of Tippecanoe, an image that he would use to his political advantage in later years.

112. James Madison-Fourth president of the US from 1809-1817. He was president during the War of 1812 and oversaw the continuation of the Emabrgo of 1807 through the Nonintercourse Act and Macon’s Bill No. 2.

113. British burn Washington, D.C.-The British burned the Capitol Building and White House August 24-25, 1814 near the end of the War of 1812. Most of the city was saved by a rain storm.

 

114. Star-Spangled Banner-In 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote new words for a well-known drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven," to celebrate America's recent victory over the British. However, only in 1931, following a twenty-year effort during which more than forty bills and joint resolutions were introduced in Congress, was a law finally signed proclaiming "The Star Spangled Banner" to be the national anthem of the United States.

115. Treaty of Ghent-This treaty, signed on December 24, 1814, ended the War of 1812, fought between Great Britain and the United States. Ghent, Belgium, more seriously. Napoleon had been defeated, but Britain was financially depleted. The American peace commission included Albert Gallatin, Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams. The resulting peace agreement, which basically restored prewar conditions, included the following provisions:

· Called for the end of hostilities

· Required that conquered territory and prisoners be returned

· Appointed a commission to study lingering boundary issues between the United States and Canada.

        What was most significant about the treaty was the lack of mention of                   such items as impressment and neutral rights. The United States was strong enough to    defeat Britain in what has been called a "second American Revolution," but was not powerful enough to force more favorable terms at the peace table.

116. Hartford Convention- The Hartford Convention (December 15, 1814-January 5, 1815) grew out of New England Federalists' opposition to the War of 1812. Because of their close mercantile ties to Great Britain, the New England states had tried to prevent the declaration of war in June 1812, and that summer, both Massachusetts and Connecticut refused to contribute militia to the federal government. In spite of an embargo enacted by Congress in December 1813, New Englanders continued to sell supplies to British troops in Canada and to British vessels offshore. This lively demand for wartime provisions benefited New England, as did the enhanced market for domestic manufactures, but the overall loss of trade offset these benefits and came to symbolize for the local Federalists their loss of national power in relation to the southern-dominated Republican party. Early in 1814, several Massachusetts towns urged that a regional convention be held to formulate their grievances. That December, at the suggestion of the Massachusetts legislature, twenty-six Federalists representing Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont met in Hartford, Connecticut.

117. Battle of New Orleans- On January 8, 1815, American forces, under General Jackson, decisively defeat the British forces trying to capture New Orleans. The battle, which takes place after the Treaty of Ghent has been signed, is the most decisive American victory of the war.

118. James Monroe-(1817-1825) President during the Era of Good Feelings.

119. Rush-Bagot Agreement- It opened the Oregon Territory to mutual administration for ten years, which was later extended. The agreement also demilitarized the Great Lakes. One of the shortest Agreements defining peace/disarmament terms ever written, was negotiated as an exchange of notes during 1817, ratified by the US Senate on April 28, 1818 and by Great Britain on October 2, 1818, this one led to the "longest undefended border".

120. Clemont-The first commercially successful steamboat. The Clermont ushered in a new era in the history of transportation. It was created by Robert Fulton. It took its first voyage in August of 1807.

121. Cumberland National Road-Agitation for a road to the West began c.1800. Congress approved the route and appointed a committee to plan details in 1806. Contracts were given in 1811, but the War of 1812 intervened, and construction did not begin until 1815. The first section (called the Cumberland Road) was built of crushed stone. Opened in 1818, it ran from Cumberland to Wheeling, W.Va., following in part the Native American trail known as Nemacolin's Path. Largely through the efforts of Henry Clay it was continued (1825–33) westward through Ohio, using part of the road built by Ebenezer Zane. By this time the older part of the road was badly in need of repair. Control of the road was therefore turned over to the states through which it passed, where tolls for maintenance were collected. It was carried on to Vandalia, Ill., and finally to St. Louis.

122. Protective Tariff-From the time of the first Congress in 1789 to the outbreak of the Civil War there was dissension between the northern and the southern states over the matter of protective tariffs, or import duties on manufactured goods. Northern industries wanted high tariffs in order to protect their factories and laborers from cheaper European products. Demanding that "American laborers shall be protected against the pauper labor of Europe," tariff proponents argued that the taxes gave "employment to thousands of [American] mechanics, artisans, [and] laborers."

123. Second Bank of the United States-The Second Bank of the United States first established itself in Carpenters' Hall in 1817, after Congress determined that a federal bank might spare the country a repeat of the financial crisis the country experienced during the War of 1812. When the magnificent marble temple was completed for the bank's use in 1824, Nicholas Biddle was serving as its president. Under his dynamic leadership the bank achieved its greatest influence. But active jealousy of the bank's power led to its downfall in 1836, when, following the determined leadership of President Andrew Jackson, Congress allowed the bank's charter to expire.

124. Erie Canal- Opened in 1825, the Erie Canal was the engineering marvel of the 19th Century. When the planning for what many derided as "Clinton's Folly" began, there was not a single school of engineering in the United States.  With the exception of a few places where black powder was used to blast through rock formations, all 363 miles were built by the muscle power of men and horses. The Canal spurred the first great westward movement of American settlers, gave access to the rich land and resources west of the Appalachians and made New York the preeminent commercial city in the United States. 

125. "Era of Good Feelings"- The years following the end of the War of 1812 have been called the "era of good feelings" because of their apparent lack of partisan political strife. In the Election of 1816, James Monroe decisively defeated the last of the Federalist candidates. Monroe was overwhelmingly reelected in the Election of 1820 with no opposition whatsoever.

                    Domestic politics under Monroe revolved around three main issues:

· The Second Bank of the United States

· Henry Clay’s American System

· Missouri and slavery

                    Monroe’s major foreign affairs issues involved the following:

· Spain and the Seminole

· Diplomacy under Monroe

· The Monroe Doctrine

The economic life of the country was impacted by technological developments in several overlapping transportation eras: The Turnpike Era, the Canal Craze, the Railroad Era and the Steamboat Era. Changes in the ways Americans moved people and goods was paralleled by similar changes in the way products were produced—the United States was a full partner in the First Industrial Revolution.

At about the same time that the Industrial Revolution was starting in the North, events were occurring that would transform the South. A cotton culture emerged in that region, which revived the institution of slavery.

126. General Andrew Jackson in Florida- In the First Seminole War, Jackson invades Florida, taking control of Spanish forts and executing British nationals. He invades and takes over Pensacola, the Spanish capital in Florida. This action leads to international tensions, and the United States fears war with Britain. Afterwards, Jackson is accused of acting without authorization and threatening the peace of the United States.

                    127. Adams-Onis Treaty- The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819), also known as the           Transcontinental Treaty, solved two problems. Citizens of Georgia wanted the United States to purchase eastern Florida from Spain because Seminole natives frequently raided the state and then retreated to the Spanish territory. Spain wanted to establish the boundary between Mexico and the Louisiana Purchase before too many American settlers moved into the area. John Quincy Adams, secretary of state under President James Monroe, negotiated the treaty with Luís de Onís of Spain. Because independence movements in Spain's other colonies demanded attention, Onís was willing to sell eastern Florida. Despite the Spaniard's initial insistence on his country's rights to much of the lands involved, Adams secured a boundary between the Louisiana Purchase lands and the Texas territory that was extremely favorable to the United States. The boundary was set at the western bank of the Sabine, Red, and Arkansas rivers to the Continental Divide. From that point the line followed the forty-second parallel west to the Pacific Ocean. Spain also gave up all claims on the Oregon territory. The purchase of Florida for a mere $5 million (paid directly to citizens with claims against the Spanish government) assured the treaty's popularity in the United States, but Adams considered establishing the western boundary his most important diplomatic feat. The treaty was finally signed and ratified in 1821.

127. McCulloch v. Maryalnd-

128. Dartmouth College v. Woodward-

129. Tallmadge Amendment- When Representative James Tallmadge of New York attempted to add an antislavery amendment to that legislation there ensued an ugly and rancorous debate over slavery and the government's right to restrict slavery. The Tallmadge amendment prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and provided for emancipation of those already there when they reached age 25. The amendment passed the House of Representatives, controlled by the more populous North, but failed in the Senate, which was equally divided between free and slave states.

130. Missouri Compromise- Through the efforts of Henry Clay, "the great pacificator," a compromise was finally reached on March 3, 1820, after Maine petitioned Congress for statehood. Both states were admitted, a free Maine and a slave Missouri, and the balance of power in Congress was maintained as before, postponing the inevitable showdown for another generation. In an attempt to address the issue of the further spread of slavery, however, the Missouri Compromise stipulated that all the Louisiana Purchase territory north of the southern boundary of Missouri, except Missouri, would be free, and the territory below that line would be slave. The Missouri Compromise was repealed by the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act and declared unconstitutional in the 1857 Dred Scott decision.

131. Cohens v. Virginia-

132. Denmark Vesey- 1767?–1822, African-American leader. After many years as a slave he won (1800) $1,500 in a lottery and purchased his freedom. Intelligent and energetic, he acquired considerable wealth and influence in South Carolina. Using church meetings as a cover, he supposedly planned (1822) a slave insurrection with the intention of taking over Charleston, killing whites, and, if necessary, fleeing to Haiti. Accused by informers, Vesey was hanged along with 34 slaves.

133. Monroe Doctrine- In December 1823, in a message to Congress, Monroe set forth the following principles, which would later become known as the Monroe Doctrine:

· The Western Hemisphere was no longer open for colonization

· The political system of the Americas was different from Europe

· The United States would regard any interference in Western hemispheric affairs as a threat to its security

· The United States would refrain from participation in European wars and would not disturb existing colonies in the Western Hemisphere

The impact of the Monroe Doctrine was mixed. It was successful to the extent that the continental powers did not immediately attempt to revive the Spanish empire, but this was on account of the strength of the British Navy, not American military might. The Doctrine also was successful in that it kept France, Spain and other powers out of the region, but Britain would long remain the dominant trade power in Latin America. The Doctrine was a failure from the standpoint that the Latin American nations resented the Big Brother behavior of the U.S.—a prescient attitude on their parts. It was not until the 1880s that the newly built steel navy provided the United States with the clout to enforce the Monroe Doctrine.

134. Gibbons v. Ogden-

135. John Quincy Adams-Sixth President of the US from 1825-1829. Adams, secretary of state, Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the treasury--aspired to succeed him in his high office. In addition, Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun was nominated for the Vice-presidency. Of the other four, Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its choice to the three candidates who had received the largest number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Representatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted. The wholly unjust and baseless charge of ``bargain and corruption'' followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States.

136. Tariff of Abominations- (1828), a federal statute placing high tariffs on imports. The highest tariff imposed in America up to that time, it was labeled the "Tariff of Abominations" by southern leaders, who bitterly opposed the bill and spoke of secession. Henry Clay worked out the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which reduced tariffs gradually until 1842.

137. South Carolina Exposition and Protest- The South Carolina "Exposition", drafted secretly by Vice-President John C. Calhoun, was presented to the state's House of Representatives on 19 December 1828. Calhoun argued that the tariff violated the state’s rights and made it the slave of Northern manufacturing interests. More generally, he argued that a state had the right to nullify any federal law that infringed on the constitutional rights of its people. The Nullifiers did not attempt to put their theory into practice until they realized that the revised tariff act of 1832 offered little relief.

138. President Andrew Jackson-Seventh President of the US from 1829-1837. A well-known general and westerner of a humble background. He disliked banks and wanted people that worked hard in his administration. He was a member of the Democratic-Republican party.

139. Maysville Road Veto- In 1830, Jackson vetoed a bill to improve the Maysville Road using federal money, which was a setback for the internal improvements sought by many. Jackson felt the state of Kentucky should pay for the improvements and construction due to the road being contained entirely in the state.

140. Indian Removal Act of 1830-In 1830, just a year after taking office, Jackson pushed a new piece of legislation called the "Indian Removal Act" through both houses of Congress. It gave the president power to negotiate removal treaties with Indian tribes living east of the Mississippi. Under these treaties, the Indians were to give up their lands east of the Mississippi in exchange for lands to the west. Those wishing to remain in the east would become citizens of their home state. This act affected not only the southeastern nations, but many others further north. The removal was supposed to be voluntary and peaceful, and it was that way for the tribes that agreed to the conditions. But the southeastern nations resisted, and Jackson forced them to leave.

141. Peggy Eaton affair- Senator John Eaton, a close friend of Jackson, had married the widowed daughter of a Washington innkeeper, Margaret (Peggy) O’Neill. The local rumor mill ground out gossip that O’Neill and Eaton had had an affair prior to her husband’s death. The Cabinet wives, led by Mrs. John C. Calhoun, were scandalized and refused to attend events when she was present. Jackson was not pleased with this tempest, remembering how deeply his late wife had been hurt by scandal-mongering. He resented Calhoun’s inability to control his wife and was disappointed when Martin Van Buren alone among the Cabinet officers defended the Eatons. In 1831, Eaton and Van Buren resigned their offices, putting pressure on the other members to do likewise. These resignations gave Jackson the opportunity to appoint Cabinet officers who were loyal to him rather than Calhoun.

142. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia- By refusing to consider Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Supreme Court denied self-government to a Native American tribe. Prior to 1831, the federal government treated tribes as foreign entities in conducting official interactions with them. In an effort to keep their tribal lands, the Cherokee living within Georgia turned to farming and ranching. They also wrote a constitution and laws reflecting some aspects of U.S. law. The state of Georgia declared all the Cherokee laws void, prompting that nation to appeal to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote the opinion dismissing the case, saying that Indian tribes were "domestic dependent nations" and could not turn to the Supreme Court. The case's dismissal allowed Georgia to strip the tribe of its governmental forms.

143. Antimasonic Party- The Anti-Masonic Party was the original third party to be active on the national scene. Popular opinion in America generally opposed secret organizations, but Freemasonry largely escaped this scrutiny because so many prominent citizens were members. In 1831, the anti-Masonic Party held a national convention and nominated William Wirt as their presidential candidate for the following year. Wirt had been the U.S. Attorney General and, strangely, a Mason. Running against the popular Andrew Jackson, Wirt did poorly, carrying only the state of Vermont. Their prime impact had been to drain votes away from Henry Clay. Around 1834, the Anti-Masonic Party began a rapid disintegration with some of its members helping to establish the new Whig Party and others migrating to the Democratic Party.

144. South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification-After enactment of the tariff act of 1832 South Carolina called a state convention, which passed (Nov. 24, 1832) the ordinance of nullification. This ordinance declared the tariff laws null and void, and a series of enactments in South Carolina put the state in a position to resist by force any attempt of the federal government to carry the tariff act into operation. President Jackson in reply dramatically issued a strong proclamation against the nullifiers, and a force bill was introduced into the U.S. Senate to give the President authority to use the armed forces if necessary to execute the laws.

145. Compromise Tariff-(1833) An act sponsored by Henry Clay to appease the southern states who opposed any type of protective tariff. South Carolina's nullification of the tariff of 1832 and its threat to secede from the Union prompted its passage. It provided that the rates be progressively reduced until 1842, when they would be approximately the same as they were in 1816. The Compromise Tariff brought about South Carolina's repeal of its ordinance of nullification.

146. Force Bill-(Mar. 2, 1833) The first force bill, passed in response to South Carolina’s ordinance of nullification, empowered President Jackson to use the army and navy, if necessary, to enforce the laws of Congress, specifically the tariff measures to which South Carolina had objected so violently.

147. Whig Party- Established in 1834, the Whig Party was a reaction to the authoritarian policies of Andrew Jackson. "King Andrew," as his critics labeled him, had enraged his political opponents by his actions regarding the Bank of the United States, Native Americans, the Supreme Court and his use of presidential war powers. The term Whig was taken from English politics, the name of a faction that opposed royal tyranny. Opponents who gravitated to the Whig Party included Jackson critics, states’ rights advocates, and supporters of the American System. In some respects the Whigs were the descendants of the old Federalist Party, supporting the Hamiltonian preference for strong federal action in dealing with national problems. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were the unquestioned luminaries of the Whig Party. Neither was able to overcome sectional jealousies and gain the coveted presidency. The Whigs' efforts to unify were slow and ultimately unsuccessful. Their record on the presidential level is as follows:

· The Election of 1836: The Whigs offered three regional candidates but were easily beaten by the Democratic candidate, Martin Van Buren

· The Election of 1840: The famous "log cabin and hard cider" campaign yielded a Whig victory with William Henry Harrison and John Tyler

· The Election of 1844: James K. Polk, the Democratic candidate, outdistanced Whig Henry Clay in a contest noted for its close popular vote

· The Election of 1848: The final Whig presidential victory, in which Zachary Taylor defeated Democrat Lewis Cass primarily because of votes diverted to third party candidate Martin Van Buren; the vice president, Millard Fillmore, became president upon Taylor’s death

· The Election of 1852: Democrat Franklin Pierce easily out-pointed Whig Winfield Scott

· The Election of 1856: The Whigs made a nominal appearance with Millard Fillmore of the National American Party (garnering feeble Whig support), losing badly to Republican John C. Frémont and the victor Democrat James Buchanan.

 The issue of slavery split the party. "Conscience Whigs" in the North favored the abolition of slavery and halting the institution's spread into new territories. The "Cotton Whigs" in the South took the opposite viewpoints. Following Scott’s poor showing in 1852, the southerners moved to the Democratic Party and the northerners to the newly formed Republican Party.

148. Martin Van Buren-Eighth President of the US from 1837-1841.

149. Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge-

150. "Trail of Tears"- The Trail of Tears refers to the route followed by fifteen thousand Cherokee during their 1838 removal and forced march from Georgia to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). In 1791, a U.S. treaty had recognized Cherokee territory in Georgia as independent, and the Cherokee people had created a thriving republic with a written constitution. For decades, the state of Georgia sought to enforce its authority over the Cherokee Nation, but its efforts had little effect until the election of President Andrew Jackson, a longtime supporter of Indian removal. Although the Supreme Court declared Congress's 1830 Indian removal bill unconstitutional (Worcester v. Georgia, 1832), the national and state harassment continued, culminating in the rounding up of the Cherokee by troops in 1838. The Cherokee were forced to abandon their property, livestock, and ancestral burial grounds and move to camps in Tennessee. From there, in the midst of severe winter weather, they were marched another eight hundred miles to Indian Territory. An estimated four thousand people—over 25 percent of the Cherokee Nation—died during the march.

151. Independent Treasury Act- The Independent Treasury Act, passed in 1840, removed the federal government from involvement with the nation's banking system by establishing federal depositories for public funds instead of keeping the money in national, state, or private banks. The act was proposed by President Martin Van Buren in 1837, partly in response to the fact that public funds had been lost when many state banks failed during the panic of 1837. Passage was delayed, however, until southern Democrats could be persuaded to join northern Democrats in approving the measure. Under the Independent Treasury Act, bank notes were to be gradually phased out for payments to and from the government; by June 30, 1843, only hard money was to be accepted. The bill also established subtreasuries for federal funds in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, St. Louis, New Orleans, Washington, and Charleston—hence its alternative title, the subtreasury bill.The Whigs, led by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, opposed the Independent Treasury; they were committed to the reestablishment of a national bank like the one defeated by President Andrew Jackson in 1832. After winning a congressional majority in the election of 1840, the Whigs succeeded in repealing the Independent Treasury Act (August 13, 1841), although they were unable to gain President John Tyler's support for their national bank proposals. For the rest of Tyler's term, in spite of repeated Democratic efforts to reestablish the subtreasury system, the secretary of the treasury was left free to manage public funds according to his discretion, usually by depositing them in state banks. The return of the Democrats to power after the election of 1844 led to the passage in 1846 of a new Independent Treasury Act, nearly identical to that of 1841. This legislation remained substantially unchanged until passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. The subtreasuries were finally abolished in 1920.

152. William Henry Harrison- (1773-1841), ninth president of the United States, western military hero, territorial administrator, congressman, and diplomat. Born into a distinguished Virginia family, Harrison sought an army career and took part in Anthony Wayne's successful expedition against the Indian tribes of the Northwest that had defeated two American armies. He was present when the western tribes at the Treaty of Greenville ceded millions of acres of land to the United States. Although scarcely a person of humble background, he was pictured as the epitome of the common man of the West, the adventurous individualist who had built his own log cabin and farmed his own acres in Ohio. The Whigs outdid themselves in image building with coonskin caps, facsimile log cabins, popular tunes, slogans, and badges that added a theatrical dimension to the emerging two-party system. Their campaign also profited from economic depression. Harrison defeated Van Buren in the election of 1840, the Democratic candidate, by a wide margin, but died of pneumonia after only one month in office.

153. Nat Turner- Black slave preacher Nat Turner felt that God had called on him to lead his people out of slavery. He was born on a small plantation in Virginia to an African-born slave mother who taught him to hate slavery. His master's son taught him to read, and over the years he became fanatically religious and served as preacher for the slaves in the area. Some of his devoted flock began to call him "the Prophet." A solar eclipse in 1831 was God's sign to Nat Turner that the time had come to strike the blow for freedom. The biggest slave uprising in U.S. history began on the night of August 21, 1831, when Turner and seven fellow slaves murdered their master and his family while they slept, and then set out on a campaign of brutal murder that terrorized the countryside and killed 55 white people. Picking up slave recruits as they traveled from plantation to plantation, Turner and his followers moved through Southampton County toward the county seat of Jerusalem, where they planned to capture the armory. Some of the slaves were mounted so that they could chase down anyone trying to escape as they swept down on a plantation and bludgeoned to death all the white people they could find- children and women, young and old indiscriminately. For 48 hours, Turner and his undisciplined followers rampaged and killed until they, themselves, were killed, captured, or dispersed in a confrontation with armed citizens and the state militia outside Jerusalem. Nat managed to escape and hide out for six weeks before he was captured. He and 16 of his followers were hanged. Nat Turner's rebellion set off a reign of terror for all blacks in the area as state and federal troops swept through, killing as many as 200 blacks. To avoid future uprisings, new slave codes were enacted outlawing the education of slaves and putting strict controls on their movements.

154. Lowell System- The Lowell system was a method of factory management that evolved in the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, owned by the Boston Manufacturing Company. In 1814, the Boston Company built America's first fully mechanized mill in Waltham, Massachusetts. Nine years later, the company built a complex of new mills at East Chelmsford, soon renamed Lowell in honor of the company's founder, Francis Lowell. With the production process fully mechanized, the principal limitation on the firm's output was the availability of labor, and here the company made its second innovation: it began to recruit young farm girls from the surrounding countryside. In order to attract these women and to reassure their families, the owners developed a paternalistic approach to management that became known as the Lowell system.The mill workers were housed in clean, well-run boardinghouses, were strictly supervised both at work and at home, and were paid unusually good wages. The farm girls responded with enthusiasm. They soon became renowned as excellent employees, and their lively self-improvement program (including a literary magazine) drew international attention. Few of the Lowell women worked more than a few years, but for every one who returned home to marry, two new ones appeared. By the 1830s, the Lowell system had become a national symbol of the fact that in America, humanity could go hand in hand with industrial success. Even at the pinnacle of its renown, however, conditions in Lowell had begun to deteriorate. In 1834, an economic downturn led to the mills' first wage cuts. In the 1840s, managers instituted a speedup, requiring higher and higher output for the same hourly wage. The women formed the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association and tried to appeal to their employers and then to the state legislature through petitions. These led to state investigations in 1845 and 1846, but little changed. After 1848, conditions deteriorated further, as New England's textile industry began to suffer from overexpansion. Seeking cheaper labor, the mill owners turned increasingly to Irish immigrants and in the process discontinued the management policies they had devised to attract workers from the farms. By the 1850s, the Lowell system had been abandoned.

155. Commonwealth v. Hunt- In Commonwealth v. Hunt (March 1842), Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of the Massachusetts Supreme Court held that it was not inherently illegal for workers to organize a union or try to compel recognition of that union by means of a strike. Three years earlier, the Boston Journeymen Bootmakers' Society had called a strike against all employers who insisted on hiring nonunion bootmakers. Although members were not charged with violence or with intending to destroy the employers' businesses, seven of the union leaders were indicted for criminal conspiracy. All were found guilty in city court in October 1840. On appeal, Chief Justice Shaw reversed the municipal ruling, on the ground that seeking to induce one's fellow workers to join a union was not illegal unless the methods used to accomplish that aim were unlawful. Shaw held that, since no contracts were broken, the bootmakers' refusal to work for particular employers was simply the legal exercise of their "acknowledged right to contract with others for their labor," even if it might have the indirect effect of impoverishing those employers. Later judges were more prepared than Shaw to find unions' methods for enforcing recognition to be illegal, but the Commonwealth v. Hunt decision had set an important precedent in establishing the concept that seeking to compel recognition of a union did not in itself constitute a conspiracy.

156. German and Irish immigration-Irish immigrants moved out of their home country to the US and other countries due to the potato famine of 1845. Over the next ten years, 750,000 Irish died and another 2 million left their homeland for Great Britain, Canada, and the United States. Freighters, which carried American and Canadian timber to Europe, offered fares as low as $17 to $20 between Liverpool and Boston--fares subsidized by English landlords eager to be rid of the starving peasants. As many as 10 percent of the emigrants perished while still at sea. Unlike Irish immigrants, who settled primarily in northeastern cities and became active in politics, German immigrants tended to move to farms or frontier towns in the Midwest and were less active politically. While some Germans fled to the United States to escape political persecution following the revolutions of 1830 and 1848, most migrated for quite a different reason: to sustain traditional ways of life. The industrial revolution severely disrupted traditional patterns of life for German farmers, shopkeepers, and practitioners of traditional crafts (like baking, brewing, and carpentering). In the Midwest's farmland and frontier cities, including Cincinnati and St. Louis, they sought to reestablish old German lifeways, setting up German fraternal lodges, coffee circles, and educational and musical societies. German immigrants carried important aspects of German culture with them, which quickly became integral parts of American culture, including the Christmas tree and the practice of Christmas gift giving, the kindergarten, and the gymnasium.

157. Clipper ships-A new type of ship invented by the Americans, especially designed to carry tea (their elongated form literally cut through the water). These sailing ships were built for speed. They could make the crossing in about 90 days, giving them a big head start on the vessels that sailed from London, and the consequent advantage of being able to sell their cargoes at much better prices.

158. Transatlantic cable & telegraph-The first form of communication between people that were long distances for each other. It was invented by Samuel F.B. Morse in May of 1844. The Transatlantic cable was the attempt to connect the United States and Europe by telelgraph. The first cable was laid in 1858, but failed shortly after. A second attempt in 1866 provided a cable that worked well. Cyrus Field along with several others was given the task of developing and creating the cable.

159. Admiral Perry opens Japan-In 1853, Admiral Matthew Perry sailed to Japan with a fleet of warships to open the Japan to the outside world. The US sought a trade agreement from the Japanese in order to make a larger market for goods and to exert influence in Asia.

160. Reform movements in the late 1800’s-Reform movements of the late 1800’s hit several key areas of life for Americans. These areas included the workplace, child labor, control of big business, government corruption, alcohol, and equality/women’s rights.

161. Utopian communities- The western idea of utopia originates in the ancient world, where legends of an earthly paradise lost to history (e.g. Eden in the Old Testament, the mythical Golden Age of Greek mythology), combined with the human desire to create, or recreate, an ideal society, helped form the utopian idea. The great success story, however, was a sect, the Shakers, founded by an Englishwoman, Mother Ann Lee, and established in North America in 1774. By the 1840s it had approximately six thousand members scattered in various communities. Utopian movements dissipate in the 1850’s and will pop up from time to time in the future.

162. Oneida Community- The founder of the Oneida Community was John Humphrey Noyes in 1848. The community, founded near Syracuse, New York in 1848, advocated a set of social and religious practices that were collectively referred to as "Bible Communism." In addition to mandatory adherence to rules regarding exclusion of private property and communal responsibility, members of the Community were expected to abide by principles that directly affected their personal lives: the practices of complex marriage, mutual criticism and communal child-rearing. Although many outside the community perceived these practices as immoral and unacceptable for women, those within the community found the new practices personally liberating.

163. Brook Farm- 1841–47, an experimental farm at West Roxbury, Mass., based on cooperative living. Founded by George Ripley, a Unitarian minister, the farm was initially financed by a joint-stock company with 24 shares of stock at $500 per share. Each member was to take part in the manual labor in an attempt to make the group self-sufficient. Intellectual life was stimulating, with such members as Nathaniel Hawthorne, John S. Dwight, Charles A. Dana, and Isaac Hecker, and such visitors as Ralph Waldo Emerson, W. E. Channing, Margaret Fuller, Horace Greeley, and Orestes Brownson. Brook Farm was mainly an outgrowth of Unitarianism, although most of the members had left that church and were advocates of the literary and philosophical movement known as transcendentalism. Economically, the community’s excellent school was the most successful part of the venture (anticipating John Dewey’s progressive-education ideas of learning from experience); agriculture showed little profit because of the sandy soil and the inexperience of the farmers.

164. Women’s Rights/Senenca Falls Convention- The women's rights movement began in Seneca Falls, New York in July 1847, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott called for a convention "to discuss the social, civil and religious condition and rights of woman." In effect, Seneca Falls would become the genesis for the women's rights movement.

165. Shakers- The Shakers, or United Society of Believers in Christ’s Second Appearing, are the most enduring and successful of the many communitarian societies established in America in the 18th and 19th centuries. The first Shakers, led by Ann Lee, came to America from Manchester, England, in 1774 seeking a place to freely practice their religious beliefs. Near Albany, New York, they established the foundation for a unique sect, which has endured for more than 220 years.

166. Temperance Union- The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was organized in 1874 by women who were concerned about the problems alcohol was causing their families and society. The members chose total abstinence from all alcohol as their life style and protection of the home as their watchword

167. American Antislavery Society- The American Antislavery Society was an organization founded in 1833 by reformer William Lloyd Garrison and others who attacked the institution of slavery in the United States and demanded that it be ended. By 1838, there were more than 250,000 members. People could become a member if they weren’t slave holders. If they contributed money to the Society, they were given the right to vote at the meetings. The growth of the abolition movement was due in part to the similarity between it and other reform movements of the era. This abolition turned out to be the most important of all the reforms of the Jacksonian Era.

168. Horace Mann/Public Education- Horace Mann, often called the Father of the Common School, began his career as a lawyer and legislator. When he was elected to act as Secretary of the newly-created Massachusetts Board of Education in 1837, he used his position to enact major educational reform. He spearheaded the Common School Movement, ensuring that every child could receive a basic education funded by local taxes. His influence soon spread beyond Massachusetts as more states took up the idea of universal schooling.

169. Liberty Party-Was the first political party in the United States to give most of its attention to the slavery question. The politician James G. Birney and the poet John Greenleaf Whittier were the leading supporters of the group. From July 1844 to March 1845, Whittier edited the Middlesex Standard, a paper published in Lowell, Mass., by the Liberty Party. The Liberty Party nominated Birney for President in 1840, but he made a poor showing in the election. He also headed the party ticket in 1844 and polled 62,000 votes. In 1848, the party met in Buffalo, N.Y., with other groups to form the Free Soil Party.

170. Mormon Church-Founded by Joseph Smith Jr. (1805-1844), on April 6, 1830. Smith claimed to have had a visitation from God in 1820 in which God directed him to establish the true church. Consequently he organized the Mormon Church on April 6, 1830, with six original members. Beginning with a few hundred followers the church moved to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois before Smith´s death at the hands of a mob at the Carthage, Ill., jail. Smith had been arrested for encouraging the destruction of the Expositor, a Nauvoo, Ill., newspaper. After Smith´s death, Brigham Young was affirmed as president of the church by a majority of the church´s leaders and led several thousand followers to Utah where they established Salt Lake City in 1847. Joseph Smith´s widow, Emma, resided in Independence, Mo. Those who affirmed her son, Joseph Smith, as the true successor of his father and as prophet of the church helped found the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now headquartered in Independence, Mo., in 1852.

171. Emerson and Thoreau-Two transcendentalist writers whose lives were entertwined by a belief in the same system. Transcendentalism a literary and philosophical movement, associated with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Margaret Fuller, asserting the existence of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition.

172. Seventh Day Adventist Church- According to historians of the movement, this group gained its more recent name from the teaching that the expected return of Jesus on October 22, 1844 had been fulfilled in a way that had not previously been understood. This was termed "the Great Disappointment." Further Bible study led to the belief that Jesus in that year had entered into the Most Holy Place of the heavenly sanctuary, and began an "investigative judgment" of the world: a process through which there is an examination of the heavenly records to "determine who, through repentance of sin and faith in Christ, are entitled to the benefits of His atonement"¹ after which Jesus will return to earth. According to the church's teaching, the return of Christ may occur very soon, though nobody knows the exact date of that event (Matthew 24:36). Early Seventh Day Adventist leaders, including Ellen G. White, taught that those who did not accept the Adventist message prior to October 22, 1844, would not be saved. This was called the "shut-door" doctrine. The doctrine was later rejected by Seventh Day Adventists.

173. Elizabeth Blackwell- Physician (1821 - 1910) She received the first medical degree granted to a women in the United States from Geneva College in NY in 1849). She started out as a teacher but for various reasons she set out to get a medical degree. One of those reasons was her dismay over the social inequities of the time.

174. Texas secedes from Mexico-In 1820, American Moses Austin was granted land in Texas from Spanish officials. In 1821, his son Stephen Austin brought 300 families to farm along the Brazos River in Texas. That same year Mexico won independence from Spain. Mexico extended the boundaries of Austin’s colony and granted other Americans land in Texas. In 1823, the new colony created its head of government in present-day Austin County. During the 1830s, tension grew between Mexico and large numbers of American settlers in Texas. By 1835, the Texas Revolution had begun. When Texas troops captured San Antonio, Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna brought over 4,000 troops to regain control of the mission. Less than 200 Texan rebels withdrew into a chapel called the Alamo. Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie and others fought to their deaths. Following the Alamo, more than 300 Texan prisoners from the battle at Goliad were also executed. The Battle of San Jacinto was the last major battle in this war. On April 21, 1836, Texans took the Mexico army by surprise, capturing Santa Anna and defeating his army. They shouted the famous phrase, "Remember the Alamo" while they fought. This victory gave Texas independence from Spain. The new independent country became the Republic of Texas. The Republic of Texas tried for nearly 10 years to join the United States. Finally on Dec. 29, 1845, Texas became the 28^th state. The following year, war broke out between the United States and Mexico over the boundary between Texas and Mexico. The Mexican War ended in 1848. Mexico gave up all claims to Texas using the Rio Grande as the new boundary between the two countries.

175. John Tyler-10^th President of the United States from 1841-1845. He became president after William Henry Harrison died while in office. He helped the US acquire Texas by a joint resolution of Congress.

176. Webster-Ashburton Treaty- As the population grew in northern Maine, friction developed between rival groups of lumberjacks (see Aroostook War). An effort to resolve the situation had been made in 1831 when the King of the Netherlands sponsored negotiations, but his endeavor was rejected by the Senate. In 1842, Secretary of State Daniel Webster met with the British Foreign Minister, Alexander Baring, the first Baron Ashburton. The resulting Webster-Ashburton Treaty reached agreement on the following points:

· Boundaries: Clearly defined borders were drawn between Maine and New Brunswick, and also in the Great Lakes area; the United States received control of 7,015 square miles of the disputed territory and Britain, 5,012 square miles

· Extradition: Some movement was made toward addressing extradition (the legal process for returning fugitives to another jurisdiction) concerns between the two nations; this matter had become politically sensitive following the Caroline affair; a formal extradition treaty was concluded later

· African slave trade: The United states agreed to station ships off the African coast in an effort to detect Americans engaging in the slave trade; Webster rejected a request to allow boarding of American ships by the British Navy.

One question of growing concern, the Oregon boundary issue, was not addressed in this agreement. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty was significant in that it furthered the practice of settling troublesome issues through diplomacy.

177. James Polk-11^th President of the United States from 1845-1849. He was a Democrat dark horse candidate from North Carolina who presided during the Mexican-American War. Under his leadership the US acquired most of the western US including California, Arizona, Oregon, and Washington.

178. Texas enters Union- In 1846, war broke out between the United States and Mexico over the boundary between Texas and Mexico. The Mexican War ended in 1848. Mexico gave up all claims to Texas using the Rio Grande as the new boundary between the two countries.

179. Slidell Mission- President Polk dispatched John Slidell, a Louisiana lawyer, to Mexico City in the fall of 1845. His assignment was to negotiate the following:

1. Mexican recognition of the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and the United States

2. American forgiveness of the claims by U.S. citizens against the Mexican government

3. The purchase of the New Mexico area for $5 million

4. The purchase of California at any price.

Mexican governmental affairs were in turmoil and the Slidell Mission was not received. Slidell returned to the United States and recommended to the president that strong action be taken against Mexico.

180. Oregon Treaty-A long history of dispute characterized the ownership of the Oregon Territory, which included present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho and portions of Montana, Wyoming and British Columbia. Spain and Russia had surrendered their claims to the region, but the United States and Britain were active claimants in the 19th century's early years. The matter's resolution was delayed by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, in which both parties agreed to a temporary policy of "joint occupation" of the region. This accommodation was extended in 1827. During the 1830s, the American position came to favor establishment of the northern border along 49º north latitude, arguing that the nation's Manifest Destiny required no less. The British, however, wanted to see the southern boundary of British Columbia established at the Columbia River and based their claims on the Hudson's Bay Company's long history in the area. The British position weakened in the early 1840s as large numbers of numbers of American settlers poured into the disputed area over the Oregon Trail. Possession of

Oregon became an issue in the Election of 1844. Democratic candidate James K. Polk took an extreme view by advocating the placement of the border at 54º 40' north latitude. Expansionists chanted, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" After the election, Polk put the British on notice that joint occupation would not be extended, but quietly entered into diplomatic discussions. In June 1846, the Treaty of Washington was signed between Britain and the United States, the latter represented by Secretary of State James Buchanan. Provisions included:

· The boundary between Canada and the United States was set at the 49th parallel, from the Rocky Mountains to the coast; the line was extended southward through the Gulf Islands and then followed the mid-point through the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the Pacific Ocean

· Navigation through the Gulf Islands and the Strait of Juan de Fuca was to be ensured for both nations.

The United States achieved a favorable resolution on the main boundary issue and the British retained full control of Vancouver Island, a matter of prime importance to them.

One major point of contention resulted from ambiguous wording in the treaty. It was unclear whether San Juan Island, one of the larger Gulf Islands, belonged to Canada or the U.S. Tensions over this issue peaked in 1859 in the so-called Pig War.

180. Wilmot Proviso- This measure was designed to ban slavery within territory acquired as a result of the Mexican War. It was introduced on August 8, 1846, only a few months into the war, by Democratic representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania as part of a bill to appropriate $2 million to negotiate a treaty with the Mexicans. The antislavery declaration reflected the national political situation. The Democrats had divided over slavery and expansion during the 1844 election, but after his victory James K. Polk had pushed for the acquisition of the Oregon country and for a larger share of Texas from Mexico. Northern Democrats such as Wilmot, who feared the addition of slave territory, had resented Polk's willingness to compromise the Oregon dispute with Great Britain at the forty- ninth parallel—less territory than expected. More interested in northern free labor than in the plight of southern slaves, Wilmot had been an administration loyalist until he presented his proviso. Apparently, it may not even have been his idea. The language was taken from the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, and several antislavery congressmen had written similar measures. Although the measure was blocked in the southern-dominated Senate, it helped widen the growing sectional rift, and it inspired such politicians of the time as James Buchanan, Lewis Cass, and John C. Calhoun to formulate their own plans for dealing with slavery as the nation expanded its territory.

181. Iowa enters Union-The state became part of the Union in 1846 the 29^th overall. It became a state around the same time as Texas to help balance the free and slave states.

182. Mexican-American War-War between Mexico and the US from 1846-1848. The defeat of Santa Anna and his army effectively showed the power of the US and its determination to spread from Atlantic to the Pacific. The origin of the war was contested as both sides claimed the other side started it.

"Spot resolutions"- James K. Polk, a Democrat, was president while Lincoln was in Congress. Lincoln joined other Whigs in attacking Polk for starting the Mexican War. Congress had declared war against Mexico in May 1846 upon Polk's contention that Mexicans had fired on American soldiers in U.S. territory. In December 1847 Lincoln challenged the truth of this contention. He introduced a resolution questioning whether the spot on which the firing took place was actually in U.S. territory. In another resolution he claimed that the American troops were on that spot in violation of the orders of their commanding officer, General Zachary Taylor. The next month, Lincoln supported a Whig resolution declaring that the Mexican War had been "unnecessarily and unconstitutionally . . . begun by the President." Lincoln's "spot resolutions" made little impression either on Congress or on the president, but they caused an uproar in Illinois, where the war was approved of by most voters. Lincoln was denounced as a traitor, and opposition newspapers gleefully called him Spotty Lincoln. However, despite his opinion of the war, once war was declared, Lincoln voted for all appropriations in support of it.

183. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo-Mexican officials and Nicholas Trist, President Polk's representative, began discussions for a peace treaty that August. On February 2, 1848 the Treaty was signed in Guadalupe Hidalgo, a city north of the capital where the Mexican government had fled as U.S. troops advanced. Its provisions called for Mexico to cede 55% of its territory (present-day Arizona, California, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Nevada and Utah) in exchange for fifteen million dollars in compensation for war-related damage to Mexican property. Other provisions stipulated the Texas border at the Rio Grande (Article V), protection for the property and civil rights of Mexican nationals living within the new border (Articles VIII and IX), U.S. promise to police its side of the border (Article XI), and compulsory arbitration of future disputes between the two countries (Article XXI). When the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in March, it deleted Article X guaranteeing the protection of Mexican land grants. Following the Senate's ratification of the treaty, U.S. troops left Mexico City.

184. Zachary Taylor-12^th President of the United States from 1849-1850. He died while in office. He was a part of the Whig party and is best known for his role as one of the successful generals in the Mexican-American War. His nickname was "Old Rough and Ready" and he never went to college.

185. California Gold Rush-In January of 1848, James Marshall had a work crew camped on the American River at Coloma near Sacramento. The crew was building a saw mill for John Sutter. On the cold, clear morning of January 24, Marshall found a few tiny gold nuggets. Thus began one of the largest human migrations in history as a half-million people from around the world descended upon California in search of instant wealth. The first printed notice of the discovery was in the March 15 issue of "The Californian" in San Francisco. Shortly after Marshall's discovery, General John Bidwell discovered gold in the Feather River and Major Pearson B. Reading found gold in the Trinity River. The Gold Rush was soon in full sway.

186. Mexican Cession-The "Mexican Cession" refers to lands surrendered, or ceded, to the United States by Mexico at the end of the Mexican War. The terms of this transfer were spelled out in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848. To the United States, this massive land grab was significant because the question of extending slavery into newly acquired territories had become the leading national political issue. To Mexico, the loss of an enormous part of its territory was a tremendous embarrassment and created lasting anger among many of its citizens.

187. Free-Soil Party-In August 1848 at Buffalo, New York, a meeting of anti-slavery members of the Whig Party and the Liberty Party established the Free-Soil Party. The new party opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. The main slogan of the party was "free soil, free speech, free labour, and free men". In the 1848 presidential election, Martin Van Buren, the party's candidate, polled 10 per cent of the vote. He split the traditional Democratic support and enabled the Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor, to win. By 1852 the Free-Soil Party had 12 congressmen but in presidential election, John P. Hale won over 5 per cent of the vote. Two years later, remaining members joined the Republican Party.

188. Millard Fillmore-13^th President of the United States. He took over for Zachary Taylor after his death. He signed into effect the Compromise of 1850 and sent Admiral Perry to Japan. He was also a Whig and never went to college.

189. Compromise of 1850-The compromise was proposed by the "Great Compromiser" Henry Clay. The measures were the admission of California as a free state; the organization of New Mexico and Utah territories without mention of slavery, the status of that institution to be determined by the territories themselves when they were ready to be admitted as states (this formula came to be known as popular sovereignty); the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; a more stringent fugitive slave law; and the settlement of Texas boundary claims by federal payment of $10 million on the debt contracted by the Republic of Texas.

190. Fugitive Slave Act-In payment for Southern support for California's admission to the Union as a free state and ending the slave trade in the District of Columbia, Congress enacted the Fugitive Slave Act to assist the South with maintaining a

tight rein on slaveholders’ property. The new law created a force of federal commissioners empowered to pursue fugitive slaves in any state and return them to their owners. No statute of limitations applied, so that even those slaves who had been free for many years could be (and were) returned. The commissioners enjoyed broad powers, including the right to compel citizens to assist in the pursuit and apprehension of runaways; fines and imprisonment awaited those who refused to cooperate. A captured runaway could not testify on his own behalf and was not entitled to a court trial. The commissioners received a fee of 10 dollars for every slave returned; the fee was reduced to five dollars if the accused slave were released. The passage and enforcement of this law enraged many in the North. Some states reacted by passing legislation designed to hamper the federal commissioners' activities, but such laws were declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court. Riots occurred in some Northern communities and soldiers were deployed to restore order. The 1852 publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin capitalized upon the Northern sensibilities, which had been rubbed raw by the Fugitive Slave Act.

191. California enters the Union-California enters the union as the thirty-first state in 1850. It shifts the balance of power in favor of the free states.

192. Minnesota, Utah, and Oregon enter the Union-1858: Minnesota enters the union - 32^nd. 1859: Oregon enters the union - 33^rd. 1896: Utah enters the union - 45^th.

193. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty-Zachary Taylor’s secretary of state, John M. Clayton, met with a British representative, Sir Henry Bulwer, to calm a potentially troublesome issue in Central America. Both powers had studied the feasibility of constructing a canal to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the narrow isthmus in Central America. Initially the most promising site appeared to be in Nicaragua. Neither party was prepared in 1850 to undertake the massive project, but wanted to ensure that one country would not act in the absence of the other. Under the terms of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the two parties agreed:

· Not to seek exclusive control of the canal or territory on either side of such a canal

· Not to fortify any position in the canal area

· Not to establish colonies in Central America

The Treaty was ratified in the Senate, but was viewed in a negative light by the public, which regarded it as a renunciation of the Monroe Doctrine. Most historians of diplomacy today view the agreement more positively, arguing that the United States did about as well as could be expected at the time. Britain was a great world power; the United States was not. The treaty prevented an immediate rush for influence in Central America and acted to strengthen relations between the two counties. (Later secretaries of state would attempt to modify the treaty, but without success. It was not until 1901 that this agreement would be superceded by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.)

194. Uncle Tom’s Cabin-This novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe did much to galvanize northern public opinion against slavery. Uncle Tom's Cabin, or, Life Among the Lowly began as a ten-month serial in the National Era, an abolitionist newspaper, on June 5, 1851. Published in book form in March 1852, it quickly sold 300,000 copies and eventually about 7 million throughout the world. It was also dramatized in 1852 by George Aiken (without Stowe's consent) and had a successful stage run.The book tells the story of a Christian slave, Uncle Tom, who is sold by a Kentucky family burdened by debt. Finally, sold again, he dies under the lash of the henchman of a cruel overseer, Simon Legree, who wants Uncle Tom to accept him instead of God as his master. Stowe, a member of a family of abolitionists and ministers, also recounts the flight of a family of runaways on the Underground Railroad. Many northerners were shocked into a hatred for the institution so melodramatically described. When introduced to Stowe during the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln is said to have called her the "little lady who made this big war." The novel also affected the American language: "Uncle Tom" became an epithet for passive, usually older blacks (paradoxically, considering that Tom will answer to no white man, only to God), and "Simon Legree" became a synonym for cruelty.

195. Know-Nothing (American) Party-byname of AMERICAN PARTY, U.S. political party that flourished in the 1850s. The Know-Nothing party was an outgrowth of the strong anti-immigrant and especially anti-Roman Catholic sentiment that started to manifest itself during the 1840s. A rising tide of immigrants, primarily Germans in the Midwest and Irish in the East, seemed to pose a threat to the economic and political security of native-born Protestant Americans. In 1849 the secret Order of the Star-Spangled Banner formed in New York City, and soon after lodges formed in nearly every other major American city. Members, when asked about their nativist organizations, were supposed to reply that they knew nothing, hence the name. As its membership and importance grew in the 1850s, the group slowly shed its clandestine character and took the official name American Party. As a national political entity, it called for restrictions on immigration, the exclusion of the foreign-born from voting or holding public office in the United States, and for a 21-year residency requirement for citizenship. By 1852 the Know-Nothing party was achieving phenomenal growth. It did very well that year in state and local elections, and with passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 it won additional adherents from the ranks of conservatives who could support neither the proslavery Democrats nor antislavery Republicans. When Congress assembled on Dec. 3, 1855, 43 representatives were avowed members of the Know-Nothing party. That, however, was the peak of Know-Nothing power. At the American Party convention in Philadelphia the following year, the party split along sectional lines over the proslavery platform pushed through by Southern delegates. Party presidential candidate Millard Fillmore carried just one state (Maryland) in the 1856 election, and congressional strength dropped to 12 representatives. Caught in the sectional strife disrupting all national institutions, the American Party fell apart after 1856.

196. Republican Party-The Republican Party was born in the early 1850's by anti-slavery activists and individuals who believed that government should grant western lands to settlers free of charge. The first informal meeting of the party took place in Ripon, Wisconsin. The first official Republican meeting took place on July 6th, 1854 in Jackson, Michigan. The name "Republican" was chosen because it alluded to equality and reminded individuals of Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party. In 1856, the Republicans became a national party when John C. Fremont was nominated for President under the slogan: "Free soil, free labor, free speech, free men, Fremont." Four years later, Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican to win the White House. Republicans have a long and rich history with basic principles: Individuals, not government, can make the best decisions; all people are entitled to equal rights; and decisions are best made close to home. The symbol of the Republican Party is the elephant. During the mid term elections in 1874, Democrats tried to scare voters into thinking President Grant would seek to run for an unprecedented third term. Thomas Nast, a cartoonist for Harper's Weekly, depicted a Democratic jackass trying to scare a Republican elephant - and both symbols stuck.

197. Kansas-Nebraska Act-Bill that became law on May 30, 1854, by which the U.S. Congress established the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Stephen A. Douglas, the Democratic senator from Illinois and chairman of the Committee on Territories, introduced the bill in early 1854 dealing with these unorganized lands. Douglas was anxious to see the region developed. Part of his motivation was personal gain—he was a heavy speculator in western lands and also, as a resident of Chicago, supportive of the development of the central route for a transcontinental railroad. Further, an exposure on the national stage might be helpful to his considerable presidential ambitions. Douglas’ bill succeeded in luring Southern politicians with the following provisions:

· The Nebraska Territory was to be divided into two units—Kansas and Nebraska

· The question of slavery, which had seemingly been answered, was to be decided by "popular sovereignty"—allowing the territorial legislatures to decide.

The effect of this proposal was to repeal the Missouri Compromise, a prospect that enraged antislavery forces and most Northerners. Not content, the Southern leaders insisted on a formal amendment which specifically repealed the slavery provisions of the compromise. A bitter debate followed in Congress, culminating in May 1854 in a narrow victory for Douglas and the South. President Franklin Pierce signed the measure immediately. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act exerted a tremendous impact, which included:

· The reopening of the slavery question in the territories with almost immediate tragic results in "Bleeding Kansas"

· The president's hope for reelection dashed

· The complete realignment of the major political parties

· The Democrats lost influence in the North and were to become the regional proslavery party of the South

· The Whig Party, which had opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, died in the South and was weakened in the North

· A new Republican Party emerged as an immediate political force, drawing in anti-Nebraska Whigs and Democrats.

198. Franklin Pierce-14^th President of the US from 1853-1857. During his term, feelings in congress were so intense that fist-fights broke out on the floor of the congress. Kansas was known as "Bloody Kansas" due to the state's intense turmoil over the issue of slavery. He also authorized the Gadsden Purchase in 1853.

199. Ostend Manifesto-Document drawn up in Oct., 1854, at Ostend, Belgium, by James Buchanan, American minister to Great Britain, John Y. Mason, minister to France, and Pierre Soulé, minister to Spain. William L. Marcy, Secretary of State under President Pierce, instructed Soulé to try to buy Cuba from Spain, but Soulé antagonized the Spanish by his political intrigues and aggressive threats (he issued an unwarranted ultimatum to the Spanish government on the Black Warrior affair). Pierce then ordered a conference of the three diplomats in Europe, all proslavery Democrats, at Ostend. The resulting manifesto strongly suggested that the United States should take Cuba by force if Spain refused to sell. Southerners, who had long feared that Cuba might become an independent black republic, applauded the document, but it was vigorously denounced by the free-soil press as a plot to extend slavery. Marcy immediately repudiated it for the U.S. government.

200. "Bleeding Kansas"- The years of 1854-1861 were a turbulent time in Kansas territory. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 established the territorial boundaries of Kansas and Nebraska and opened the land to legal settlement. It allowed the residents of these territories to decide by popular vote whether their state would be free or slave. This concept of self-determination was called popular sovereignty'. In Kansas, people on all sides of this controversial issue flooded the territory, trying to influence the vote in their favor. Rival territorial governments, election fraud, and squabbles over land claims all contributed to the violence of this era. Three distinct political groups occupied Kansas: pro-slavers, free-staters and abolitionists. Violence broke out immediately between these opposing factions and continued until 1861 when Kansas entered the Union as a free state on January 29th. This era became forever known as "Bleeding Kansas".

201. John Brown’s Attack at Pottawatomie Creek, Kansas-On the night of May 24, 1856, John Brown and his company of Free State volunteers murdered five men settled along the Pottawatomie Creek in southeastern Kansas. The victims were prominently associated with the pro-slavery Law and Order Party, but were not themselves slave owners. This assault occurred three days after Border Ruffians from Missouri burned and pillaged the anti-slavery haven of Lawrence, and two days after Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner was severely beaten by Senator Preston Brooks of South Carolina.

202. Brooks-Sumner Incident-As North-South tensions heightened, so did

Massachusetts Congressman Charles Sumner's rhetoric against the South. In his Crime Against Kansas speech, delivered in May 1856, he lambasted southern efforts to extend slavery into Kansas and attacked his colleague, Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina. The South was pictured as evil slave holders, even though the issue the South was stressing was to allow the people of the new states decide their own fate.  Of course, like any political cause, they sough allies, in this case new states and territories that would be sympathetic with their political and economic concerns.  Shortly after Sumner's infuriating speech, Butler's cousin, Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina, assaulted Sumner on the Senate floor.

203. James Buchanan-15^th President of the US from 1857-1861. He was the only president never to be married. During his term, the John Brown raid occurred on Harper's Ferry. During his term, the Lincoln-Douglas debates were being held in Illinois. During his term, the Confederate States of America declared their independence.

204. Dred Scott v. Sanford-(1856), known as the "Dred Scott Case", was a lawsuit decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1857. It is considered by many to have been a key cause of the American Civil War, and of the later ratification of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, leading to the abolition of slavery and establishment of civil rights for freed slaves. The decision for the court was written by Chief Justice Roger Taney. Dred Scott was an American slave who was taken first to Illinois, a free state, and then to Minnesota, a free territory, for an extended period of time and then back to the slave state of Missouri. After his original master died, he sued for his freedom. After the Missouri Supreme Court ruled against him, he appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which upheld the decision of the Missouri court, but also used the case to fundamentally change the legal balance of power in favor of slaveholders. The Court ruled that:

· No Negroes, not even free Negroes, could ever become citizens of the United States. They were "beings of an inferior order" not included in the phrase "all men" in the Declaration of Independence nor afforded any rights by the Constitution.

· The exclusion of slavery from a U.S. territory in the Missouri Compromise was an unconstitutional deprivation of property (Negro slaves) without due process (prohibited by the Fifth Amendment).

· Dred Scott was not free, because Missouri law alone applied after he returned there.

205. Lecompton Constitution-The pro-slavery constitution was formulated (Sept., 1857) there, and was ratified (Dec., 1857) after an election in which voters were given a choice only between limited or unlimited slavery; free state men refused to cast their ballots. President James Buchanan urged Congress to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution, but Stephen A. Douglas and his followers broke with the pro-slavery Democrats, and the bill could not pass the House. At a subsequent election (Aug., 1858), Kansas voters decisively rejected the Lecompton Constitution. Kansas was later (1861) admitted as a free state.

206.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates-The debates between Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln were held during the 1858 campaign for a US Senate seat from Illinois. The debates were held at 7 sites throughout Illinois, one in each of the 7 Congressional Districts. Douglas, a Democrat, was the incumbent Senator, having been elected in 1847. He had chaired the Senate Committee on Territories. He helped enact the Compromise of 1850. Douglas then was a proponent of Popular Sovereignty, and was responsible for the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The legislation led to the violence in Kansas, hence the name "Bleeding Kansas" Lincoln was a relative unknown at the beginning of the debates. In contrast to Douglas' Popular Sovereignty stance, Lincoln stated that the US could not survive as half-slave and half-free states. The Lincoln-Douglas debates drew the attention of the entire nation. Although Lincoln would lose the Senate race in 1858, he would beat Douglas out in the 1860 race for the US Presidency.

207. Freeport Doctrine-Senator Stephen A. Douglas enunciated this policy at Freeport, Illinois, on August 27, 1858, during one of his celebrated debates with Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln had asked in the wake of the Dred Scott decision, "Can the people of a United States Territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of the United States, exclude slavery from its limits prior to the formation of a State Constitution?" Lincoln knew how his opponent would reply because Douglas already had stated his position. Lincoln's purpose was to show antislavery voters that Douglas's position differed from their own. A longtime advocate of popular sovereignty, Douglas had broken with James Buchanan's administration over its preference for the proslavery Lecompton constitution in Kansas. Because this split had cost the "Little Giant" from Illinois his chance for southern support at the forthcoming Democratic presidential convention in 1860, Douglas could repeat his previous statements in the form of the Freeport Doctrine: "Slavery cannot exist a day in the midst of an unfriendly people with unfriendly laws." In appealing to a middle ground on slavery, Douglas restated his stand in behalf of popular sovereignty and defied the Dred Scott ruling. Thus, Douglas went too far for the South, which began to push harder for a territorial slave code, but not far enough for northerners who opposed slavery.

208. John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry- Late on the night of October 16, 1859, John Brown and twenty-one armed followers stole into the town of Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia) as most of its residents slept. The men--among them three free blacks, one freed slave, and one fugitive slave--hoped to spark a rebellion of freed slaves and to lead an "army of emancipation" to overturn the institution of slavery by force. To these ends the insurgents took some sixty prominent locals including Col. Lewis Washington (great-grand nephew of George Washington) as hostages and seized the town's United States arsenal and its rifle works. The upper hand which nighttime surprise had afforded the raiders quickly eroded, and by the evening of October 17, the conspirators who were still alive were holed-up in an engine house. In order to be able to distinguish between insurgents and hostages, marines under Colonel Robert E. Lee waited for daylight on October 18 to storm the building. Brown was hanged on December 2, 1859.

209. Abraham Lincoln-16^th president of the United States from 1861-1865. On January 23, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. He was the first president to be assassinated. He was shot five days after the end of the Civil War. He was the first president born outside of the original thirteen colonies. Just one month after his inauguration, the Civil War began.

210. Fort Sumter-Throughout March of 1861 the Confederate authorities sought to drive out the Union occupants of Fort Sumter

peacefully. However, once Abraham Lincoln's administration would not surrender the fort to the Confederates, Jefferson Davis decided to take action. Davis hoped that in seizing command of Fort Sumter he could drive the northerners out of the South and help South Carolina secede to the Confederate States of America. Action could not be delayed for fear of reinforcements of the garrison at Fort Sumter. Davis and his cabinet decided to dispatch General Beauregard to siege Fort Sumter. Beauregard was faced with a difficult situation. Anderson, the commanding officer at Fort Sumter, was his instructor at West Point, who recommend his elongated service at West Point due to his outstanding behavior. Prior to the bombardment, Buearegaurd sent a letter formally requesting surrender of the Fort. Anderson regretfully denied this offer, and the bombardment began. On April 12th at 4:30 AM he opened fire, bombarding the fort with heavy fire. General Anderson, with his ammunition on fire and supplies depleted, surrendered the following day and left the fort on April 14th. Although no casualties were caused by the enemy, one Union soldier was killed during the surrendering ceremony when a cannon backfired. The fort was neither a strategic location nor a deciding battle, but it did start what was to be the United States worst war and one of the bloodiest in history.

211. The Confederate States of America-The Confederate States of America (CSA, also known as the Confederacy) was the confederation formed by the southern slave states that seceded from the United States and existed from 1861 to 1865. The seceding states took control of federal forts and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the American Civil War. Eventually a total of 11 states became part of the Confederacy, including Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Missouri and Kentucky never officially seceded, but factions from those states applied for acceptance into the confederacy, and those states are represented as stars on the Confederate battle flag. The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory, which became Oklahoma in 1907, also mainly supported the Confederacy. Some residents in New Mexico and Arizona territories at Mesilla and Tucson also petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was claimed by the Confederacy. Also note that West Virginia seceded from Virginia and rejoined the Union or United States as a free state in 1863. Martial law was declared in 1861 in Maryland (the state which surrounds Washington, D.C.) to block attempts at secession there. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession.The Confederacy was formed on February 4, 1861, and Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President of the Confederate States the next day. For most of its duration, the Confederacy was engaged in the American Civil War against the remainder of the Union.

212. Trent Affair-The Trent Affair was the diplomatic crisis that potentially brought Great Britain and the United States closest to war during the first year of the American Civil War. Although war seemed possible, both sides managed to avoid an armed conflict, and in the process gained greater confidence in one another. Confederate President Jefferson Davis, seeking support against the North, sent diplomats James Mason of Virginia as minister to Britain and John Slidell of Louisiana as minister to France. Eluding the Union blockade, the Southerners reached Cuba, where they boarded a British mail steamer, the Trent, for passage across the Atlantic Ocean. On November 8, 1861, Captain James of the USS San Jacinto, halted the Trent 300 miles east of Havana with two shots across the bow. A boarding party from the San Jacinto seized the Confederate diplomats and their secretaries, but then allowed the Trent to resume its voyage. This decision became a source of controversy, with the British many claiming that the San Jacinto had violated international law by removing persons from a ship without taking the ship to a prize court for adjudication.

213. Confiscation Act-The Confiscation Acts were a series of laws passed by the federal government during the American Civil War that were designed to liberate slaves in the seceded states. The first Confiscation Act, passed on Aug. 6, 1861, authorized Union seizure of rebel property, and it stated that all slaves who fought with or worked for the Confederate military services were freed of further obligations to their masters. President Abraham Lincoln objected to the act on the basis that it might push border states, especially Kentucky and Missouri, into secession in order to protect slavery within their boundaries. He later convinced Congress to pass a resolution providing compensation to states that initiated a system of gradual emancipation, but the border states failed to support this plan. And Lincoln repudiated the position of Generals John C. Frémont and David Hunter, who proclaimed that the first Confiscation Act was tantamount to a decree of emancipation. The second Confiscation Act, passed July 17, 1862, was virtually an emancipation proclamation. It said that slaves of civilian and military Confederate officials "shall be forever free," but it was enforceable only in areas of the South occupied by the Union Army. President Lincoln was again concerned about the effect of an antislavery measure on the border states and again urged these states to begin gradual compensated emancipation.

214. Sherman’s march through Georgia-General Grant arranged two campaigns for the year 1864. One, under his own immediate direction, was for the seizure of Richmond, the Confederate capital; the other was for the seizure of Atlanta, Ga., the focus of several converging railways. The latter expedition was led by General Sherman. His army numbered nearly 100,000 men, comprising the Army of the Cumberland, led by Gen. George H. Thomas; the Army of the Tennessee, commanded by Gen. J. R. McPherson: and the Army of the Ohio, led by Gen. J. M. Schofield.

Appomattox Court House-Early on April 9, 1865, the remnants of John Brown Gordon’s corps and Fitzhugh Lee’s cavalry formed a line of battle at Appomattox Court House. Gen. Robert E. Lee determined to make one last attempt to escape the closing Union pincers and reach his supplies at Lynchburg. At dawn the Confederates advanced, initially gaining ground against Sheridan’s cavalry. The arrival of Union infantry, however, stopped the advance in its tracks. Longstreet couldn’t reinforce because of pressure from the east. Lee knew his army was now surrounded on three sides, and asked for a truce. It was a while before all the fighting died down – after years of combat men didn’t believe white flags, didn’t believe there would be a surrender. Lee surrendered to Grant in the afternoon of April 9, in the parlor of Wilmer McLean’s house. The war in Virginia was over.

Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction-Even before the war ended, President Lincoln began the task of restoration. Motivated by a desire to build a strong Republican party in the South and to end the bitterness engendered by war, he issued (Dec. 8, 1863) a proclamation of amnesty and reconstruction for those areas of the Confederacy occupied by Union armies. It offered pardon, with certain exceptions, to any Confederate who would swear to support the Constitution and the Union. Once a group in any conquered state equal in number to one tenth of that state's total vote in the presidential election of 1860 took the prescribed oath and organized a government that abolished slavery, he would grant that government executive recognition. Lincoln's plan aroused the sharp opposition of the radicals in Congress, who believed it would simply restore to power the old planter aristocracy.

Wade-Davis Bill-This Civil War measure, introduced by two Radical Republicans, Ohio senator Benjamin F. Wade and Maryland representative Henry Winter Davis, asserted congressional power over Reconstruction. It required that a majority of a seceded state's white men take an oath of loyalty to the Constitution and guarantee black equality. Then the state could hold elections for a constitutional convention, starting the readmission process. The Radicals were seeking an alternative to Abraham Lincoln's Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. Lincoln's plan called for creating new southern state governments when 10 percent of voters in the 1860 election pledged loyalty to the Union and agreed to abolish slavery but without enfranchising blacks. Congress passed the Wade-Davis bill in 1864, but Lincoln pocket-vetoed it. He then invited southerners to rejoin the Union under either plan, knowing they would prefer his easier terms. Wade and Davis replied with a blistering manifesto, charging Lincoln with defying Congress and acting like a dictator. The widespread support for the Wade-Davis bill by congressional Republicans reflected their desire for a larger role in shaping Reconstruction

Freedmen’s Bureau-Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands in March 1865. Its responsibilities included the provision of food, shelter, and medical aid for the destitute, the education of freedpeople, the establishment of free labor arrangements in former plantation areas, and the securing of justice for blacks in southern legal proceedings. Early on, bureau commissioner Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard and assistant commissioners for various states tried to resettle a portion of the freed population on the 850,000 acres of abandoned and confiscated southern land, but President Andrew Johnson's policy of pardoning large numbers of erstwhile Confederates and restoring their land frustrated this project. The bureau thenceforth focused on compelling freedpeople to accept plantation work on a wage labor basis. The contract labor system quickly gave way, however, to various sharecropping and tenancy arrangements in large parts of the South. The bureau's education policy was more successful. Working with private aid societies, it had helped establish nearly three thousand schools by 1869. It contributed, too, to the founding of black colleges and normal schools. n the summer of 1866, Congress extended the life of the Freedmen's Bureau over Johnson's veto, but it always lacked adequate funds and never fielded more than nine hundred agents. Moreover, by 1867, the bureau's administrators were trimming its legal agencies, its contract supervision, its medical network, and its relief activity. General Howard believed that blacks would be better served if the states were compelled to deal with them as part of the general citizenry rather than their continuing as wards of the federal government. By 1869, Congress had ended all the bureau's work except education, which continued into 1870, and help for black veterans, which survived until 1872.

13^th Amendment-The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, by the House on January 31, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865, abolished slavery as a legal institution.

14^th Amendment-Following the Civil War, Congress submitted to the states three amendments as part of its Reconstruction program to guarantee equal civil and legal rights to black citizens. The major provision of the 14th amendment was to grant citizenship to "All persons born or naturalized in the United States," thereby granting citizenship to former slaves. Another equally important provision was the statement that "nor shall any state deprive any person of live, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The right to due process of law and equal protection of the law now applied to both the Federal and state governments. On June 16, 1866, the House Joint Resolution proposing the 14th amendment to the Constitution was submitted to the states. On July 28, 1868, the 14th amendment was declared, in a certificate of the Secretary of State, ratified by the necessary 28 of the 37 States, and became part of the supreme law of the land.

15^th Amendment-15th Amendment to the Constitution was proposed in February 1869. It stated simply that "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." There was much debate in Congress about what should be included in the Amendment. Henry Adams remarked that the 15th Amendment was "more remarkable for what it does not than for what it does contain." It did not guarantee blacks the right to hold office, which many congressmen felt should be included. It did not offer a blanket guarantee of the right to vote because many Radical Republicans feared that would void the disenfranchisement of ex-Confederates. Many states, North and South, required payment of poll taxes, property ownership, or literacy as a condition of voting. The 15th Amendment did not address any of those stipulations. Feminists, especially, fought against the amendment because women were not included in the guarantee of suffrage.

Black Codes-Black Codes was a name given to laws passed by southern governments established during the presidency of Andrew Johnson. These laws imposed severe restrictions on freed slaves such as prohibiting their right to vote, forbidding them to sit on juries, limiting their right to testify against white men, carrying weapons in public places and working in certain occupations.

Civil Rights Act-The Civil Rights Act was passed by Congress on 9th April 1866 over the veto of President Andrew Johnson. The act declared that all persons born in the United States were now citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition. As citizens they could make and enforce contracts, sue and be sued, give evidence in court, and inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, and convey real and personal property. Persons who denied these rights to former slaves were guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction faced a fine not exceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both. The activities of organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan undermined the workings of this act and it failed to guarantee the civil rights of African Americans.

Ku Klux Klan-The first branch of the Ku Klux Klan was established in Pulaski, Tennessee, in May, 1866. A year later a general organization of local Klans was established in Nashville in April, 1867. Most of the leaders were former members of the Confederate Army and the first Grand Wizard was Nathan Forrest, an outstanding general during the American Civil War. During the next two years Klansmen wearing masks, white cardboard hats and draped in white sheets, tortured and killed black Americans and sympathetic whites. Immigrants, who they blamed for the election of Radical Republicans, were also targets of their hatred. Between 1868 and 1870 the Ku Klux Klan played an important role in restoring white rule in North Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia.

At first the main objective of white supremacy organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, the White Brotherhood, the Men of Justice, the Constitutional Union Guards and the Knights of the White Camelia was to stop black people from voting. After white governments had been established in the South the Ku Klux Klan continued to undermine the power of blacks. Successful black businessmen were attacked and any attempt to form black protection groups such as trade unions was quickly dealt with.

Military Reconstruction Act-This act sought to rebuild the governments of the Southern states in the Northern mold and ensure the civil rights of the freed blacks. The members of the existing state governments in the South, made up of the leaders of the Confederacy, were removed, and the states were placed under the military rule of the U.S. Army. No one who had supported the Confederate government was allowed to vote or hold political office. As a result, the state governments were controlled by scalawags, carpetbaggers, and the military rulers of the Radical Republican Congress. The South was divided into five military districts, with a U.S. Army general in charge of each. Virginia, the first district, was commanded by Gen. John Schofield. The second district brought North and South Carolina under the command of Gen. Daniel E. Sickles, and Gen. John Pope oversaw the reconstruction of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida in the third district. The fourth district, comprising Mississippi and Arkansas, was commanded by Gen. Edward Ord, and in the fifth, Texas and Louisiana came under the control of Gen. Philip H. Sheridan. Some 200,000 U.S. soldiers were stationed throughout the South to preserve order and carry out the dictates of Congress. These first military commanders had virtually unlimited power. They removed thousands of civil officials from their jobs and actively cultivated the registration of black voters, thereby placing former slaves in position to dominate their former masters and to wring from the South what little was left after four years of devastating war. Military rule in the South lasted for 10 years, until 1877, when Rutherford B. Hayes agreed to return the states to home rule in exchange for Southern support in his bid for the presidency.

Tenure of Office Act-The Tenure of Office Act, passed over the veto of President Andrew Johnson on March 2, 1867, provided that all federal officials whose appointment required Senate confirmation could not be removed without the consent of the Senate.  When the Senate was not in session, the Act allowed the President to suspend an official, but if the Senate upon its reconvening refused to concur in the removal, the official must be reinstated in his position.  It was not entirely clear whether the Act applied to cabinet officials appointed by a previous president, such as Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, a Lincoln appointee.

Command of the Army Act-All orders from the president as Commander-in-Chief had to go through the general of the army. During the Civil War the general in charge was Grant.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson-Early in 1868, President Johnson attempted to fire his Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, without Senate approval. Stanton had been working with the Radicals to undermine Johnson's reconstruction policies. Firing Stanton violated the Tenure of Office Act. The Radicals blocked Johnson's attempt to test the constitutionality of this law in the Supreme Court. On February 24, 1868, the House of Representatives voted to impeach President Johnson. Congress wanted Johnson impeached because he refused to cooperate or compromise over black rights and the reconstruction of Southern state governments. But under the Constitution, Congress had to charge him with "high crimes or misdemeanors." Most of the charges related to his violating the Tenure of Office Act by firing Stanton. The constitutionality of this law was questionable and had never been tested in the courts. It was a weak reason to remove a president. Johnson's trial began in the Senate on March 30. Seven House members, including Thaddeus Stevens, served as the prosecutors of Johnson. Five able lawyers defended Johnson. The president himself never appeared in the Senate during his trial. After the trial, which lasted over a month, the Senate failed by one vote to convict Johnson and remove him from the presidency. The doctrine of separation of powers prevailed. Congress had not taken over the government (President Pro Tem of the Senate Benjamin Wade, a Radical, would have become president if Johnson had been removed). On the other hand, military reconstruction still remained in the South. Moreover, Johnson had only about nine months left in his term, his hopes for being elected president in November all but gone. It was a victory for the presidency, but not for President Johnson.

Ulysses S. Grant-18^th President of the US from 1869-1877. He was a Republican and was a better military strategist than a president.

Fisk-Gould Scandal-In August 1869, Gould and Fisk began to buy gold in an attempt to corner the market, hoping that the increase in price of gold would increase the price of wheat such that western farmers would sell, causing a great amount of shipping of breadstuffs eastward, increasing freight business for the Erie railroad. During this time, Gould used contacts with President Ulysses S. Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to try to influence the president and his Secretary General Horace Porter. These speculations in gold culminated in the panic of Black Friday, on September 24, 1869, when the price of gold fell from 162 to 135.

Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall-The Tammany Society was founded in New York City in 1789 by William Mooney, a Revolutionary War veteran. It drew its name from a respected Delaware chief, Tammend, who had reportedly befriended William Penn. The Society, sometimes called the Columbian Order, was originally a patriotic and charitable organization.

In 1798, Aaron Burr helped to mold the organization into a political force dedicated to anti-Federalist principles. This partisan group was used effectively to support Burr and Thomas Jefferson in the Election of 1800. A watershed event occurred in 1817 when the Irish managed to force their way into membership in Tammany. The practice of exchanging votes for benefits quickly became the organization's backbone. In 1830, the group's headquarters were established in Tammany Hall and thereafter the name of the association and the location were synonymous. Tammany Hall elected its first mayor, Fernando Wood, in 1855. New York City would be governed by Tammany forces for the next 70 years with only a few short interruptions. In 1868, William Marcy Tweed headed Tammany and ushered in an era of extreme corruption. Tweed was successful with making the organization a statewide force, but was eventually brought down by a reform attorney, Samuel J. Tilden. Tammany Hall regained its strength in the 1880s and was prominent in the life of the city. Such figures as Richard Croker, Alfred E. Smith and Jimmy Walker were deeply involved in the dealings of the machine. In the 1930s, reform mayor Fiorello la Guardia, backed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, sharply reduced the power and influence of Tammany Hall. It lingered for several decades as a county organization, but was finally ended by another reform mayor, John V. Lindsay, in the 1960s.

Amnesty Act-Gave the right to hold office again to almost all Southern leaders who had been excluded from public office by the 14th Amendment in May 1872.

Credit Mobilier scandal-The Crédit Mobilier scandal of 1872-1873 damaged the careers of several Gilded Age politicians. Major stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad formed a company, the Crédit Mobilier of America, and gave it contracts to build the railroad. They sold or gave shares in this construction to influential congressmen. It was a lucrative deal for the congressmen, because they helped themselves by approving federal subsidies for the cost of railroad construction without paying much attention to expenses, enabling railroad builders to make huge profits. When the New York Sun broke the story on the eve of the 1872 election, Speaker of the House James G. Blaine, a Maine Republican implicated in the scandal, set up a congressional committee to investigate.The House censured two of its members who were involved in the scandal: Oakes Ames of Massachusetts and James Brooks of New York. But the affair also tarnished the careers of outgoing vice president Schuyler Colfax, incoming vice president Henry Wilson, and Representative James A. Garfield, all of whom were implicated (although Garfield denied the charges and was subsequently elected president).The scandal also showed how corruption tainted Gilded Age politics, and the lengths railroads and other economic interests would go to assure and increase profits

"Salary Grab" Act-Congress passed a bill that doubled the salaries of legislators, the President and Supreme Court Justices on March 3, 1873. The bill was eventually repealed at the demand of the public.

Greenback Party-The Greenback party (also called the National Greenback party) was organized in 1876 to campaign for expansion of the supply of paper money—"greenbacks"—first issued by the federal government in 1862 to help pay for the Civil War. The idea that maintaining a flexible supply of paper money served the interests of working people, whereas paper money backed by specie (hard money, like gold or silver) benefited only the rich, had been advanced by Edward Kellogg as early as 1841. In the 1860s, Alexander Campbell popularized Kellogg's ideas, but greenbackism did not develop a significant following until the panic of 1873, when low prices and tight credit gave Campbell's writings new appeal, especially to farmers. Many people, however, passionately opposed greenbackism, arguing that an inflated supply of paper money was immoral. In addition, of course, creditors as a group stood to lose from inflation, since debts could be repaid with less valuable dollars than those originally borrowed.Greenbackers had tried unsuccessfully to prevent passage of the 1875 Specie Resumption Act, the law that put the nation back on hard money; in 1876 they formed a political party to demand that the law be repealed and that more paper money be issued. The Greenback party won only 80,000 votes in its first year, but its strength increased as the labor troubles of 1877 left more and more workers prepared to blame hard times on the manipulations of business leaders and bankers. In the congressional elections of 1878, the newly formed Greenback party polled nearly a million votes, sending fourteen Greenbackers to Congress and electing many to local office. As prosperity returned in the late 1880s, however, and as it became clear that the Specie Resumption Act would not be repealed, greenbackism lost its following; the party mounted its last national campaign in 1884. Still, the Greenbackers' emphasis on the political implications of monetary policy left its mark on future reform programs like populism; indeed, in 1892 the Populists chose as their presidential candidate James B. Weaver of Iowa, one of the Greenback congressmen of 1878.

Whiskey Ring-A group of distillers and public officials who defrauded the federal government of liquor taxes. Soon after the Civil War these taxes were raised very high, in some cases to eight times the price of the liquor. Large distillers, chiefly in St. Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago, bribed government officials in order to retain the tax proceeds. The Whiskey Ring was a public scandal, but it was considered impregnable because of its strong political connections. U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin H. Bristow resolved to break the conspiracy. To avoid warning the suspects, he assigned secret investigators from outside the Treasury Dept. to collect evidence. Striking suddenly in May, 1875, he arrested the persons and seized the distilleries involved. Over $3 million in taxes was recovered, and of 238 persons indicted 110 were convicted. Although President Grant’s secretary, Orville E. Babcock, was acquitted through the personal intervention of the President, many persons believed that the Whiskey Ring was part of a plot to finance the Republican party by fraud.

Rutherford B. Hayes-19^th President of the US from 1877-1881. He was given the Presidency through the Compromise of 1877. He was part of the Republican Party and helped to end Reconstruction.

Compromise of 1877-In order to settle the contested 1876 election, a bargain was struck that also ended Reconstruction. Democrat Samuel J. Tilden led Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in popular votes, and 203-165 in the electoral college, but fraud and violence in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, and questions about an Oregon elector's eligibility, left 20 electoral votes in doubt. Splitting over each state's contradictory returns, the Democratic House and Republican Senate created a fifteen-member electoral commission of ten congressmen and five Supreme Court justices, divided by party, with one independent, Justice David Davis. When Davis declined to serve, Republican Joseph Bradley replaced him, and the commission gave Hayes all 20 votes, prompting a Democratic filibuster. Representatives of the candidates and parties then negotiated a compromise through correspondence and at a meeting at Washington's Wormley House. The South would accept Hayes's election, back Republican James A. Garfield for House Speaker, and protect black rights; Republicans would provide federal aid for internal improvements, patronage, and, especially, home rule. But Garfield was defeated for Speaker, the government failed to subsidize improvements, and Hayes dispensed patronage and followed existing policy by removing federal troops from the South. The final southern Republican governments, all in the disputed states, collapsed, leading to the Democratic Solid South and violence and discrimination toward blacks.

Atlanta Exposition/Compromise-On September 18, 1895, African-American spokesman and leader Booker T. Washington spoke before a predominantly white audience at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta. His “Atlanta Compromise” address, as it came to be called, was one of the most important and influential speeches in American history. Although the organizers of the exposition worried that “public sentiment was not prepared for such an advanced step,” they decided that inviting a black speaker would impress Northern visitors with the evidence of racial progress in the South. Washington soothed his listeners’ concerns about “uppity” blacks by claiming that his race would content itself with living “by the productions of our hands.”

Plessy v. Ferguson-

 

Decided:	May 18, 1896
Argued:	April 13, 1896
Facts of the Case The state of Louisiana enacted a law that required separate railway cars for blacks and whites. In 1892, Homer Adolph Plessy--who was seven-eighths Caucasian--took a seat in a "whites only" car of a Louisiana train. He refused to move to the car reserved for blacks and was arrested.
Question Presented Is Louisiana's law mandating racial segregation on its trains an unconstitutional infringement on both the privileges and immunities and the equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment?
Conclusion No, the state law is within constitutional boundaries. The majority, in an opinion authored by Justice Henry Billings Brown, upheld state-imposed racial segregation. The justices based their decision on the separate-but-equal doctrine, that separate facilities for blacks and whites satisfied the Fourteenth Amendment so long as they were equal. (The phrase, "separate but equal" was not part of the opinion.) Justice Brown conceded that the 14th amendment intended to establish absolute equality for the races before the law. But Brown noted that "in the nature of things it could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political equality, or a commingling of the two races unsatisfactory to either." In short, segregation does not in itself constitute unlawful discrimination.

Guinn v. U.S.-An important U.S. Supreme Court case dealing with Jim Crow laws, which helped enforce segregation in the United States between 1865 and 1964. Argued before the court on October 17, 1913, the court handed down its decisions on June 21, 1915. Ruling that an Oklahoma law denied the right to vote was unconstitutional, the case helped defend voting rights for African Americans.

Bureau of Indian Affairs-March 11, 1824 Secretary of War John C. Calhoun created what he called the Bureau of Indian Affairs without authorization from the Congress. McKenney, formerly superintendent of Indian trade, was appointed to head the office, with two clerks assigned to him as assistants.

Homestead Act of 1862-The Act, which became law on Jan. 1, 1863, allowed anyone to file for a quarter-section of free land (160 acres). The land was yours at the end of five years if you had built a house on it, dug a well, broken (plowed) 10 acres, fenced a specified amount, and actually lived there. Additionally, one could claim a quarter-section of land by "timber culture" (commonly called a "tree claim"). This required that you plant and successfully cultivate 10 acres of timber.

Morrill Land Grant Act-The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 gave to every state that had remained within the Union a huge tract of federal land, each state receiving a number of acres equivalent to the number of members in its congressional delegation multiplied by 30,000. (States that had insufficient federal acreage within their own borders were given land on the frontier.) The states were to sell the land and use the proceeds to endow at least one college that would offer courses in agriculture, engineering, and home economics, as well as regular academic programs.This bill, which its sponsor, Congressman Justin Morrill of Vermont, had pressed for since 1857, represented a total grant of more than 17 million acres, from the sale of which the states received some $7 million. Over seventy land-grant colleges were established under the Morrill Act, laying the foundation for the development of higher education in the Middle and Far West. Another provision of the act required that military training be offered at each college, a program that ultimately became part of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. A second Morrill Act in 1890 extended the land-grant provisions to sixteen southern states and permitted them to divide federal funds between white and black schools.

Sioux Wars-Three separate wars between the US army, white settlers, and the Sioux Indians of the Dakotas, Montana, and Wyoming (1854-90). The Sioux, a confederation of nine tribes, lived throughout the northern plains. Known for their bravery and fighting ability, they had fought on the side of the British in the American Revolution and the War of 1812. As white settlers and gold seekers encroached on Sioux hunting grounds during the last half of the 1800s, hostilities increased. Strong leaders such as Red Cloud, Sitting Bull, and Crazy Horse led the Sioux in their resistance to having their land taken from them and being forced onto reservations. In 1862 in Minnesota, Chief Little Crow launched an unsuccessful uprising against the white settlers. From 1865 to 1867 Red Cloud rebelled against the use of Sioux territory as a route to the mines of western Montana. Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer attacked the Sioux at the Little Bighorn River in 1876, resulting in his troops being wiped out in what came to be known as "Custer's Last Stand." In 1890 Gen. Nelson A. Miles ordered the arrest of Sitting Bull, who was killed when he resisted. The army then conducted the massacre of 146 Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on December 29, 1890. This was the last violent encounter between American Indians and the U.S. military.

Chief Joseph/Nez Perce-(1840-1904) Chief Joseph, known by his people as In-mut-too-yah-lat-lat (Thunder coming up over the land from the water), was best known for his resistance to the U.S. Government's attempts to force his tribe onto reservations. The Nez Perce were a peaceful nation spread from Idaho to Northern Washington. The tribe had maintained good relations with the whites after the Lewis and Clark expedition. Joseph spent much of his early childhood at a mission maintained by Christian missionaries. In 1855 Chief Joseph's father, Old Joseph, signed a treaty with the U.S. that allowed his people to retain much of their traditional lands. In 1863 another treaty was created that severely reduced the amount of land, but Old Joseph maintained that this second treaty was never agreed to by his people. A showdown over the second "non-treaty" came after Chief Joseph assumed his role as Chief in 1877. After months of fighting and forced marches, many of the Nez Perce were sent to a reservation in what is now Oklahoma, where many died from malaria and starvation. Chief Joseph tried every possible appeal to the federal authorities to return the Nez Perce to the land of their ancestors. In 1885, he was sent along with many of his band to a reservation in Washington where, according to the reservation doctor, he later died of a broken heart.

Exodusters-African-Americans that left the south in order to migrate to western lands after 1877. They mainly settled in Kansas and other states that were on the Great Plains.

Helen Hunt Jackson/ A Century of Dishonor-American writer that backed the plight of Native Americans to retain their tribal lands and live in autonomy in the US. Her book, A Century of Dishonor, documented the struggles and trials of Native Americans and their relationship with the US government. It was written in 1881.

Wounded Knee Massacre- On the morning of December 29, 1890, US soldiers entered the Lakota Sioux camp at Wounded Knee, demanding that all Indian firearms be relinquished. A medicine man named Yellow Bird advocated resistance, claiming the Ghost Shirts would protect them. One of the soldiers tried to disarm a deaf Indian named Black Coyote. A scuffle ensued and the firearm discharged. The silence of the morning was broken and soon other guns echoed in the river bed. At first, the struggle was fought at close quarters, but when the Indians ran to take cover, the Hotchkiss artillery opened up on them, cutting down men, women, children alike, the sick Big Foot among them. By the end of this brutal, unnecessary violence, which lasted less than an hour, at least 150 Indians had been killed and 50 wounded. In comparison, army casualties were 25 killed and 39 wounded. Forsyth was later charged with killing the innocents, but exonerated. There were 350 total Indians with 120 of them being men and the rest were women and children.

Bessemer Process-The first process for mass-producing steel inexpensively, essential to the development of skyscrapers. An American, William Kelly, had held a patent for "a system of air blowing the carbon out of pig iron" a method of steel production known as the pneumatic process of steelmaking. Air is blown through molten pig iron to oxidize and remove unwanted impurities. Bankruptcy forced Kelly to sell his patent to Bessemer, who had been working on a similar process for making steel. Bessemer patented "a decarbonization process, utilizing a blast of air" in 1855. Modern steel is made using technology based on Bessemer's process.

Transcontinental Railroad- A railroad connection with the Pacific coast. In 1845, Asa Whitney presented to Congress a plan for the federal government to subsidize the building of a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific. The settlement of the Oregon boundary in 1846, the acquisition of western territories from Mexico in 1848, and the discovery of gold in California (1849) increased support for the project; in 1853, Congress appropriated funds to survey various proposed routes. Rivalry over the route was intense, however, and when Senator Stephen Douglas introduced (1854) his Kansas-Nebraska Act, intended to win approval for a line from Chicago, the ensuing sectional controversy between North and South forced a delay in the plans. During the Civil War, a Republican-controlled Congress enacted legislation (July 1, 1862) providing for construction of a transcontinental line. The law provided that the railroad be built by two companies; each received federal land grants of 10 alternate sections per mile on both sides of the line (the amount was doubled in 1864) and a 30-year government loan for each mile of track constructed. In 1863 the Union Pacific RR began construction from Omaha, Nebr., while the Central Pacific broke ground at Sacramento, Calif. The two lines met at Promontory Point, Utah, and on May 10, 1869, a golden spike joined the two railways, thus completing the first transcontinental railroad. Others followed. Three additional lines were finished in 1883: the Northern Pacific RR stretched from Lake Superior to Portland, Oreg.; the Santa Fe extended from Atchison, Kans., to Los Angeles; and the Southern Pacific connected Los Angeles with New Orleans. A fifth line, the Great Northern, was completed in 1893. Each of those companies received extensive grants of land, although none obtained government loans. The promise of land often resulted in shoddy construction that only later was repaired, and scandals, such as Crédit Mobilier (see Crédit Mobilier of America), were not infrequent. The transcontinental railroads immeasurably aided the settling of the west and hastened the closing of the frontier. They also brought rapid economic growth as mining, farming, and cattle-raising developed along the main lines and their branches.

 

Standard Oil- An oil refining organization founded by John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) and partners beginning in 1863. Borrowing heavily to expand his business, Rockefeller drew five big refineries including the business concern of Henry Morrison Flagler into one firm, Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler. By 1868 he headed the world's largest oil refinery. On January 10, 1870 he formed the Standard Oil Company of Ohio and started his strategy of buying up the competition and consolidating all oil-refining under one company. In 1874, Rockefeller acquired the oil interests of Charles Pratt and Company. Founder Charles Pratt (1830-1891) and his protégé Henry Huttleston Rogers (1840-1909) came with the deal. By 1878 Standard Oil held about 90% of the refining capacity in the U.S. In 1882 the company was reorganized as the Standard Oil Trust. The three main men of Standard Oil Trust were Henry H. Rogers, William Rockefeller, and, the most important, John D. Rockefeller. In 1890 the Congress of the United States passed Sherman Antitrust Act. This act is the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbids every contract, scheme, deal, conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restrain trade" is open to intepretation. It also forbids conspirations to secure monopoly of a given industry. Standard Oil Trust attracted attention from antitrust authorities and the Ohio Attorney General filed and won an antitrust suit in 1892.

Munn v.Illinois- case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1876. Munn, a partner in a Chicago warehouse firm, had been found guilty by an Illinois court of violating the state laws providing for the fixing of maximum charges for storage of grain (see Granger movement). He appealed, contending that the fixing of maximum rates constituted a taking of property without due process of law. The Supreme Court upheld the Granger laws, establishing as constitutional the principle of public regulation of private businesses involved in serving the public interest.

Edison/Light Bulb-

Wabash case-Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1886. The decision narrowed earlier ones (see Munn v. Illinois) favorable to state regulation of those phases of interstate commerce upon which Congress itself had not acted. The court declared invalid an Illinois law prohibiting long- and short-haul clauses in transportation contracts as an infringement on the exclusive powers of Congress granted by the commerce clause of the Constitution. The result of the case was denial of state power to regulate interstate rates for railroads, and the decision led to creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

Sherman Antitrust Case-1890, first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit trusts; it was named for Senator John Sherman. Prior to its enactment, various states had passed similar laws, but they were limited to intrastate businesses. Finally opposition to the concentration of economic power in large corporations and in combinations of business concerns led Congress to pass the Sherman Act. The act, based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, declared illegal every contract, combination (in the form of trust or otherwise), or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. A fine of $5,000 and imprisonment for one year were set as the maximum penalties for violating the act. The Sherman Act authorized the federal government to institute proceedings against trusts in order to dissolve them, but Supreme Court rulings prevented federal authorities from using the act for some years. As a result of President Theodore Roosevelt's "trust-busting" campaigns, the Sherman Act began to be invoked with some success, and in 1904 the Supreme Court upheld the government in its suit for dissolution of the Northern Securities Company. The act was further employed by President Taft in 1911 against the Standard Oil trust and the American Tobacco Company.

 

Interstate Commerce Act-During the 1870s, many Americans (particularly farmers) began to resent the apparent stranglehold the railroads exerted over many parts of the country. However, the postwar presidents and many in Congress resisted intervention into economic matters. Early efforts to bring some form of regulation to the giants were made at the state level, but those measures were later struck down by the Supreme Court. In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, the first true federal regulatory agency. It was designed to address the issues of railroad abuse and discrimination and required the following:

· Shipping rates had to be "reasonable and just"

· Rates had to be published

· Secret rebates were outlawed

· Price discrimination against small markets was made illegal.

Although the law granted the Commission power to investigate abuses and summon witnesses, it lacked the resources to accomplish its lofty goals. Later presidents would assure that reform would not go too far, by appointing pro-railroad commissioners.

U.S. v. Knight Co.-Permitted combinations of local manufacturers and put most monopolies beyond the reach of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The E. C. Knight Company, which enjoyed a virtual monopoly of sugar refining in the U.S., was sued by the government under the provisions of the Sherman Act. The Supreme Court ruled (8—1) against the government, declaring that manufacturing (e.g., refining) was a local activity not subject to congressional regulation of interstate commerce. Not until serious trust-busting began under presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft were effective means of enforcement added to the antitrust laws and the power of monopolies somewhat curtailed.

 

US Steel Corporation-J. P. Morgan and Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 (incorporated on February 25) by combining the steel operations owned by Andrew Carnegie with their holdings in the Federal Steel Company. The federal government attempted to use federal anti-trust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911. That effort ultimately failed. Time and competitors have, however, accomplished nearly the same thing. In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States; it now produces less than ten percent.

National Labor Union-Patricipants in the ambitiously named International Industrial Assembly of North America sought a stronger organization.  Lead by William H. Sylvis, trade union officicers gathered in Baltimore during August 1866 to launch a National Labor Union. As the labor movement remained a local affair, the NLU focused on mutual support.  However, it found common ground in the desire for a government-imposed eight-hour workday and an interest in the organization of cooperatives which confronted the difficulties of credit. Both began to involve components of the part in local and state politics. Nevertheless, the effort to launch a National Labor Reform Party proved disastrous partly due to the death of Sylvis. The remnants of the NLU had debated whether to merge their organizations into the northeastern-based Sovereigns of Industry, but opted instead for the western and southern Industrial Brotherhood in 1874.

Knights of Labor-American labor organization, started by Philadelphia tailors in 1869, led by Uriah S. Stephens. It became a body of national scope and importance in 1878 and grew more rapidly after 1881, when its earlier secrecy was abandoned. Organized on an industrial basis, with women, black workers (after 1883), and employers welcomed, excluding only bankers, lawyers, gamblers, and stockholders, the Knights of Labor aided various groups in strikes and boycotts, winning important strikes on the Union Pacific in 1884 and on the Wabash RR in 1885. But failure in the Missouri Pacific strike in 1886 and the Haymarket Square riot (for which it was, although not responsible, condemned by the press) caused a loss of prestige and strengthened factional disputes between the craft unionists and the advocates of all-inclusive unionism. With the motto "an injury to one is the concern of all," the Knights of Labor attempted through educational means to further its aims—an 8-hour day, abolition of child and convict labor, equal pay for equal work, elimination of private banks, cooperation—which, like its methods, were highly idealistic. The organization reached its apex in 1886, when under Terence V. Powderly its membership reached a total of 702,000. Among the causes of its downfall were factional disputes, too much centralization with a resulting autocracy from top to bottom, mismanagement, drainage of financial resources through unsuccessful strikes, and the emergence of the American Federation of Labor. By 1890 its membership had dropped to 100,000, and in 1900 it was practically extinct.

Workingmen’s Party-The name of the Socialist Labor party from 1874 to 1877 that was made up of mainly German immigrants.

Chinese Exclusion Act-Passed in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was a climax to more than thirty years of progressive racism. Anti-Chinese sentiment had existed ever since the great migration from China during the gold rush, where white miners and prospectors imposed taxes and laws to inhibit the Chinese from success. Racial tensions increased as more and more Chinese emigrated, occupied jobs, and created competition on the job market. By 1882 the Chinese were hated enough to be banned from immigrating; the Chinese Exclusion Act, initially only a ten year policy, was extended indefinitely, and made permanent in 1902. The Chinese resented the idea that they were being discriminated against, but for the most part they remained quiet. In 1943, China was an important ally of the United States against Japan, so the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed; however, a lasting impact remained. The act was both cause and effect: it came from decades of Chinese discrimination, and initiated decades of Chinese exclusion.

 

Brooklyn Bridge-Considered a brilliant feat of 19th-century engineering, the Brooklyn Bridge was a bridge of many firsts. It was the first suspension bridge to use steel for its cable wire. It was the first bridge to use explosives in a dangerous underwater device called a caisson. At the time it was built, the 3,460-foot Brooklyn Bridge was also crowned the longest suspension bridge in the world.

But the Brooklyn Bridge was plagued with its share of problems. Before construction even began, the bridge's chief engineer, John A. Roebling, died from tetanus. The project was taken over and seen to its completion by his son, Washington Roebling. Three years later, Roebling developed a crippling illness called caisson's disease, known today as "the bends." Bedridden but determined to stay in charge, Roebling used a telescope to keep watch over the bridge's progress. He dictated instructions to his wife, Emily, who passed on his orders to the workers. During this time, an unexpected blast wrecked one caisson, a fire damaged another, and a cable snapped from its anchorage and crashed into the river. Despite these problems, construction continued at a feverish pace. By 1883, 14 years after it began, Roebling successfully guided the completion of one of the most famous bridges in the world -- without ever leaving his apartment

American Federation of Labor-The American Federation of Labor (afl) was organized as an association of trade unions in 1886, growing out of an earlier Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions founded in 1881. The afl's president, Samuel Gompers (who served nearly every year until 1924), was convinced that unions open to workers of all types of skills within a given industry—called industrial unions—were too diffuse and undisciplined to withstand the repressive tactics that both government and management had used to break American unions in the past. The answer, he believed, was craft unions, each limited to the skilled workers in a single trade. According to Gompers's "pure and simple unionism," labor should not waste its energies fighting capitalism; its sole task was to hammer out the best arrangement it could under the existing system, using strikes, boycotts, and negotiations to win better work conditions, higher wages, and union recognition.

 

Haymarket Square Riot-The Haymarket affair began when a bomb exploded among a squad of policemen at a workers' rally in Haymarket Square, Chicago, on May 4, 1886. Since May 1, a loosely organized national strike for the eight-hour day had been gaining momentum in Chicago. On May 3 strikers had come to the support of an already-existing strike at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company; police had fired on the crowd and four people had been killed. The Haymarket rally, organized by a small anarchist group, was one of many called to protest the killings. Only thirteen hundred people attended, and most left when it began to rain. About three hundred remained when 180 police arrived and demanded that they disperse. Suddenly a bomb exploded among the policemen, killing one and wounding many more, including seven who died later. The police responded with wild gunfire, killing seven or eight people in the crowd and injuring about a hundred, half of them fellow officers. The Haymarket bombing triggered a national wave of fear; public officials, civic leaders, the press, and some union leaders joined in equating foreign birth with anarchism and terror. In Chicago hundreds of socialists, anarchists, and other radicals were rounded up. Eight anarchists (all but one of them German immigrants) were indicted for conspiracy, though none was charged with throwing the bomb. After a conspicuously biased trial, seven were condemned to hang; the eighth was given a long prison sentence. The convictions were upheld in September 1887, and the executions set for November 11. On November 10 one of the condemned men, Louis Lingg, hanged himself; a few hours later, Governor Richard J. Oglesby commuted two of the men's sentences to life imprisonment. The remaining four, Albert Parsons, August Spies, Adolph Fischer, and George Engel, were executed on schedule. On June 26, 1893, Governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the three survivors, Samuel Fielden, Michael Schwab, and Oscar Neebe. This action, though applauded by many, was also widely criticized and probably contributed to Altgeld's defeat for reelection. The nativistic fear of immigrants and radicals aroused by Haymarket lingered for years, preparing the ground for further red scares in the future.

Samuel Gompers-(1850-1924), cofounder and first president, American Federation of Labor. Born into a Jewish working-class family in London, Gompers migrated with his family to New York City in 1863. Taught both the cigar trade and union principles by his father, Gompers thrived in the heady atmosphere that surrounded New York's labor movement during the 1870s. Advocates of Marxist and utopian socialism, anarchism, communalism, and a host of other reform programs jostled for support. Influenced by British trade union principles and by the Marxist emphasis on the primacy of economic organization of workers, Gompers favored the creation of strong, centralized trade union institutions that would foster the growth and direct the activity of local unions. In conjunction with Adolph Strasser and others, Gompers restructured the Cigar Makers International Union along such lines. Although never an avowed Marxist himself, Gompers's approach to organizing workers owed much to two ideas advanced by Marxists. He agreed with them that it was only through the trade union that awareness of a broad class interest among workers could emerge.

American Protective Association-A secret proscriptive society in the United States, which was a disturbing factor in most Northern States during 1891-97. It was founded by Henry F. Bowers, who established the first council at Clinton, Iowa, 1887, and reached its height in 1894. Members were bound by oath to endeavor to exclude Catholics entirely from public offices. Propaganda was carried on by literature and lectures; forged documents were used, especially an alleged "papal bull" calling for a massacre of Protestants. Capital was made out of the coming of Monsignor Satolli, papal delegate, and also out of the parochial-school question. Few prominent men acknowledged membership. It was associated with the Republican party, and a great source of vexation to it. In failing to prevent the nomination of William McKinley (1896) and also to secure representation in the Republican platform for some principles of the order, its prestige received a blow from which it never recovered.

Jane Addams/Hull House-Hull House has long been known as a pioneering effort in social equality. Jane Addams and Ellen Starr Gates opened the house in 1889 to educate and improve the lot of the newly arrived European immigrants. At that time, the overcrowded tenement neighborhoods west of Halsted Street were a jungle of crime, vice, prostitution and drug addiction. Jane Addams became the "voice of humanity" on the West Side, enriching the lives of many unfortunate people at the house.

Homestead Strike-The Homestead strike, 1892, in Homestead, Pennsylvania, pitted one of the most powerful new corporations, Carnegie Steel Company, against the nation's strongest trade union, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. An 1889 strike had won the steelworkers a favorable three-year contract; now Andrew Carnegie was determined to break the union. His plant manager, Henry Clay Frick, stepped up production demands, and when the union refused to accept the new conditions, Frick began locking the workers out of the plant; on July 2 all were discharged. The union, limited to skilled tradesmen, represented less than one-fifth of the thirty-eight hundred workers at the plant, but the rest voted overwhelmingly to join the strike. An advisory committee was formed, which directed the strike and soon took over the company town as well. Frick sent for three hundred Pinkerton guards, but when they arrived by barge on July 6 they were met by ten thousand strikers, many of them armed. After an all-day battle, the Pinkertons surrendered and were forced to run a gauntlet through the crowd. In all, nine strikers and seven Pinkertons were killed; many strikers and most of the remaining Pinkertons were injured, some seriously.The sheriff, unable to recruit local residents against the strikers, appealed to Governor William Stone for support; eight thousand militia arrived on July 12. Gradually, under militia protection, strikebreakers got the plant running again. Frick's intransigence had won sympathy for the strikers, but an attempt on his life by anarchist Alexander Berkman on July 23 caused most of it to evaporate. Meanwhile, the corporation had more than a hundred strikers arrested, some of them for murder; though most were finally released, each case consumed much of the union's time, money, and energy. The strike lost momentum and ended on November 20, 1892. With the Amalgamated Association virtually destroyed, Carnegie Steel moved quickly to institute longer hours and lower wages. The Homestead strike inspired many workers, but it also underscored how difficult it was for any union to prevail against the combined power of the corporation and the government.

Eugene V. Debs-Socialist Eugene V. Debs was one of the major players in American politics at the turn of the 20th century. He made five attempts to gain the presidency - in 1900, 1904, 1908 1912 and 1920 - all as the standard bearer of the Socialist Party. He conducted his last campaign from behind the bars of a federal prison. A gifted orator, Debs rivaled William Jennings Bryan in his ability to move a crowd with his words.

Born in Indiana in 1855, Debs went to work for the railroad at age 14 but soon gave it up at his mother's urging. He became active in the union movement forming the American Railway Union, the nation's largest, in 1893. Arrested during the Pullman Strike of 1894, he served six months behind bars. In jail, Debs converted to socialism. He helped found the Social Democratic Party of America in 1897, the Socialist Party in 1901 and the Industrial Workers of the World in 1905. "I am for socialism because I am for humanity" he declared. He opposed America's entrance into World War I and denounced the Espionage Act designed to silence all antiwar sentiment. In 1918, he received a 10-year prison sentence for his public opposition to the war. At his trial, Debs admitted he spoke the words the federal government considered traitorous and addressed the jury in his own defense. "I am doing what little I can to do away with the rule of the great body of people by a relatively small class and establish in this country industrial and social democracy." A guilty verdict sent Debs to the federal prison in Atlanta. In 1920, the Socialist Party again nominated him as their presidential candidate and over 915,000 voted for prisoner #9653. President Wilson vigorously denied a request for Deb's pardon in 1921. Finally, Warren G. Harding released Debs under a general amnesty on Christmas Day 1921. Harding asked the old socialist to stop by the White House. "I have heard so damned much about you, Mr Debs, that I am very glad to meet you personally" Harding remarked at their meeting. Debs died in 1926.

American Railway Union-The American Railway Union (ARU) was formed in Chicago on June 20, 1893 as a single organization representing all crafts of railroad employees.

Pullman Strike-In the 1880s George Pullman built the town of Pullman near Lake Calumet to manufacture his famous railway sleeping cars. All buildings in the town were company owned and rented to workers, churches and stores. The town and surrounding areas were annexed to Chicago in 1889. The company cut wages a number of times in the 1880s and '90s, but failed to reduce the rent in the company owned housing. This double squeeze lead to dire economic circumstances for the workers. Workers struck the car works May 11, 1894. By late June sympathetic railway workers had agreed to boycott trains carrying Pullman cars nationwide. Federal troops were called in to keep the trains moving and to break the strike, prompting violence and looting in Chicago. With the arrest of the leaders in Chicago, the strike collapsed, and workers returned August 2, 1894. This strike is widely regarded as being pivotal in labor history. Issues raised included a national rail strike, the use of federal troops and company towns.

Dillingham Commission-The Dillingham Commission was appointed in 1907 by the U.S. Senate to study immigration patterns. The Commission's appointment was largely due to the pressures of groups like the Immigration Restriction League. Such groups claimed that unchecked immigration into the United States caused unmanageable social problems. In its reports published in 1910-11, the Dillingham Commission concluded that since the 1880s, immigrants had been mainly of southern and eastern European stock. The Commission assumed that immigrants from places like Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, Turkey, Lithuania, Romania, and Greece were inferior compared to the immigrants who had come before 1880, who were assumed to be of mainly northern and western European descent. The Commission's 42-volume report recommended that literacy tests be used to deny inferior immigrants from entering the country.

Gentleman’s Agreement-An agreement between the United States and Japan in 1907 that Japan should stop the emigration of its laborers to the United States and that the United States should stop discrimination against Japanese living in the United States. This agreement was ended in 1924 by the act of Congress excluding immigration from Japan, as immigration from China had been previously excluded.

Chautaugura Movement-The Chautauqua movement was founded in 1874 in the far southwestern corner of New York State in the town of Chautauqua. The founding idea was to have a place where families could gather together for several days of education, inspiration, enlightenment, and enjoyment. From miles around people came in the summertime to an encampment along the shore of Lake Chautauqua where they heard from speakers of national renown, listened to bands and glee clubs, enjoyed plays, dined together, and generally engaged in an open forum for the discussion of public issues, literature, music, and science.

Muckrakers-Name applied to American journalists, novelists, and critics who in the first decade of the 20th cent. attempted to expose the abuses of business and the corruption in politics. The term derives from the word muckrake used by President Theodore Roosevelt in a speech in 1906, in which he agreed with many of the charges of the muckrakers but asserted that some of their methods were sensational and irresponsible. He compared them to a character from Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress who could look no way but downward with a muckrake in his hands and was interested only in raking the filth. Since the 1870s there had been recurrent efforts at reform in government, politics, and business, but it was not until the advent of the national mass-circulation magazines such as McClure’s, Everybody’s, and Collier’s that the muckrakers were provided with sufficient funds for their investigations and with a large enough audience to arouse nationwide concern. All aspects of American life interested the muckrakers, the most famous of whom are Lincoln Steffens, Ida Tarbell, David Graham Phillips, Ray Stannard Baker, Samuel Hopkins Adams, and Upton Sinclair. In the early 1900s magazine articles that attacked trusts—including those of Charles E. Russell on the beef trust, Thomas Lawson on Amalgamated Copper, and Burton J. Hendrick on life insurance companies—did much to create public demand for regulation of the great combines. The muckraking movement lost support in about 1912. Historians agree that if it had not been for the revelations of the muckrakers the Progressive movement would not have received the popular support needed for effective reform.

Ashcan School-New York City, 1908 to C.1913 The Ashcan School was a group of artists who sought to capture the feel of turn-of-the-century New York City, through realistic and unglamorized portraits of everyday life. It largely consisted of Robert Henri and his circle. Henri, an influential teacher, was an admirer of the down-to-earth American realism of Thomas Eakins and Thomas Anshutz. In addition to Henri, the Ashcan School consisted of George Wesley Bellows, William Glackens, George Luks, Everett Shinn, and John Sloan. The spirit of the Ashcan School was carried on by the American Scene Painting of the 1920's and 1930's.

 

Frederick Jackson Turner-Writer of The Significance of the Frontier in American History. The impetus of the frontier thesis was Turner's fervent belief that historians up to that time had not devoted sufficient research to what he termed in an earlier essay "the fundamental, dominating fact in United States history," the territorial expansion from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Central to Turner's frontier thesis is the notion that the development of the American frontier helped to shape not only the character of the American people but also the nature of its institutions. More specifically, Turner claimed that traits and characteristics which developed during the Nineteenth-Century push from East to West -- individualism, nationalism, mobility, egalitarianism -- not only deviated from the perceived standard American cultural attitudes which prevailed at the time, but eventually came to dominate the formation of the American character.

With his announcement of the "closing" of the frontier, moreover, Turner implied that the nation would be forced to undergo a painful transition, from a perception of America as a land of endless boundaries, to one which required Americans to accept that their nation was finally a closed-space world, replete with the limitations inherent therein.

The Grange/ Oliver Kelley-The Grange came into being in 1867 because of the vision of Oliver Hudson Kelley, a Minnesota farmer and activist. He had long held that farmers, because of their independent and scattered nature, needed a national organization whicb would represent them much as unions were beginning to do for industrial workers. Farmers were at the mercy of merchants for both needed farm supplies and for marketing their crops. Railroads and warehouse companies were taking advantage of farmers as well. Kelley and some of his friends organized the National Grange (officially known as the Order of Patrons of Husbandry) as a fraternal group similar to the Masonic lodge. The early leaders were responsible for promoting cooperatives which had the potential of helping farmers economically. Effective lobbying efforts were undertaken early and this activity remains a bulwark of Grange service to rural America. Education of rural residents was championed by the early Grange and, due to Grange agitation, dramatic improvements were made in rural schools. The birth of the Extension Service, Rural Free Delivery, and the Farm Credit System were largely due to Grange lobbying. The Grange at all levels is strictly nonpartisan and does not endorse candidates for public office nor contribute to their campaigns.

Bland-Allison Act-1878 Passed by the U.S. Congress to provide for freer coinage of silver. The original bill offered by Representative Richard P. Bland incorporated the demands of the Western radicals for free and unlimited coinage of silver. This was passed by the House but was unacceptable to the conservative Senate. Senator William B. Allison then offered an amended version. The act as adopted required the U.S. Treasury to purchase between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month at market prices; this was to be coined into silver dollars, which were made legal tender for all debts. Attempts of the free-silver forces to replace the act with provision for unlimited coinage were defeated, as were attempts of the gold-standard forces to repeal it altogether. President Hayes and his successors weakened the act's effect by purchasing only the minimum amount of bullion. It remained law until replaced by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890.

James Garfield-20^th President of the US. He was elected in 1881 and was assassinated after about 100 days in office. He was a Republican and was shot by a man who thought he would receive a political office under Garfield. He was the last president born in a log cabin.

Pendleton Act-The Pendleton Act classified certain jobs, removed them from the patronage ranks, and set up a Civil Service Commission to administer a system based on merit rather than political connections. As the classified list was expanded over the years, it provided for a competent and permanent government bureaucracy. In 1883 fewer than 15,000 jobs were classified; by the time McKinley became president in 1897, 86,000—almost half of all federal employees—were in classified positions. Today, with the exception of a few thousand policy-level appointments, nearly all federal jobs are handled within the civil service system.

Civil Service Commission-A three-member, nonpartisan board created to administer competitive examinations for applicants to low-level federal jobs.

Mongrel Tariff-During the last quarter of the 19th century, attitudes regarding the tariff broke down along the following lines:

· The majority of the farmers in the South and West, mostly Democrats, opposed a high protective tariff. Their production of corn, wheat, cotton and livestock was unrivaled in any other part of the world; American farmers could usually undersell the competition and, therefore, did not need or want tariff protection.

· Influential manufacturing interests in the North pushed hard and effectively for high tariffs. Their products needed protection from cheaply produced goods from foreign nations. However, when the U.S. imposed high duties, foreign nations would respond in kind; the parties hurt most directly by this retaliation were the American farmers whose products became more expensive in foreign markets.

There were exceptions to the rules, however. Some specialized agricultural producers (such as sugar growers) favored high tariffs as a means to protect themselves from inexpensive Caribbean sugar. On the other hand, one of the great industries of the era, the railroads, opposed protectionism because they wanted access to cheap steel, regardless of whether it was American or foreign.

The tariff debate had persisted since the republic's inception, but one feature was different in the early 1880s – the government had accumulated large dollar surpluses. Those funds were deposited in government vaults, not placed in banks where the money could be recirculated. Farmer and debtor elements protested this shrinkage of the money supply. President Arthur responded to the public outcry and appointed a commission to come up with the most effective ways to lower the tariff. The recommendations of the board were ignored by Congress, which passed a new measure, the "Mongrel" Tariff of 1883, a compromise measure that satisfied nobody. Duties were lowered on a few items, but increased on most manufactured goods.

Benjamin Harrison-23^rd President of the US from 1889-1893. Six states entered the United States during his administration: ND, SD, MT, ID, WY and WA. Electric lights were installed in the White House during his term.

 

Sherman Silver Purchase Act-Agitation for action on the silver question was intense by 1890. Farmers were straining under growing debt and sharply falling prices. Western mining interests were anxious for a ready market for their silver and exerted pressure on Congress. Western voices were much stronger with the recent addition of Idaho, Montana, Washington, Wyoming and the Dakotas to the Union. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was part of a broader compromise. The Democrats gave their support to the highly protective McKinley Tariff in return for Republican votes for silver. The measure provided for the following:

· The Treasury would purchase 4.5 million ounces (or 281,250 pounds) of silver each month at market rates

· The Treasury would issue notes redeemable in either gold or silver.

The planned government purchases amounted to almost the total monthly output from the mines. However, the increased supply of silver drove down the price. Many mine operators in the West tried to reduce expenses by cutting the miners' wages. Labor unrest and sporadic violence followed. As the price of silver continued to decline, holders of the government notes understandably redeemed them for gold rather than silver. The result of the growing disparity between the two metals was the depletion of the U.S. gold reserves, an event that played prominently during the Panic of 1893.

 

McKinley Tariff-The tariff bill of 1890 was sponsored by Republican Senator William McKinley of Ohio. The measure gained support from seemingly unlikely sources: Western and Southern Democrats. This was thanks to a bargain between these regional forces to support protectionism in return for cooperation on the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. The final version of the tariff gave a small nod to reform by adding a few items to the free (not taxed) list. However, many more were subject to higher rates. The result was the highest protective tariff in American history to that point with an average rate of 48 percent. President Benjamin Harrison successfully persuaded his fellow Republicans to support provisions in the law in order to establish reciprocity. The McKinley Tariff was truly onerous and led to a sharp rise in the prices of many products. Many who had supported the measure were defeated at the polls in 1892.

Coxey’s Army-Jacob S. Coxey, a wealthy Ohio businessman and noted populist, had failed with earlier efforts to persuade public officials to act on behalf of unemployed citizens following the Panic of 1893. Coxey organized a march on Washington, D.C., starting from Massillon, Ohio, on March 25, 1894. The procession was met by cheering crowds in many cities as it worked its way eastward. However, some newspaper editors and elected officials were fearful of this mass of jobless men and their ultimate intentions. The army arrived at its destination on May 1 with 500 marchers, far less than Coxey's predicted 100,000. The event ended obscurely after Coxey and a few others were arrested for walking on the Capitol grass. Coxey's plea for government action on behalf of the unemployed yielded nothing. He had envisioned a vast program of federally sponsored public works, but neither the president nor Congress showed any inclination to respond. It would not be until the 1930s that support for such direct actions became more widely accepted.

Wilson-GormanTariff-William L. Wilson of West Virginia, head of the House Ways and Means Committee, introduced a far-reaching tariff reform bill. It added a number of items to the free list, including sugar, lumber, coal and wool. Further, the duties on imported manufactured goods would be reduced while maintaining their protective nature. To compensate for the revenue shortfall that tariff reform would create, Wilson’s bill called for the imposition of a two percent income tax, an idea recently heralded by the Populists. The Wilson bill passed the House and moved on to the Senate where protectionist forces under A.P. Gorman of Maryland went to work. They managed to attach more than 600 amendments to the measure, which destroyed its reform intent. The domestic sugar industry was one of the prime benefactors, since a whopping 40 percent duty was applied to foreign sugar. In the end, both the House and President Cleveland surrendered to the Senate’s will. The resulting Wilson-Gorman Tariff offered slight reductions in the overall average rates, an improvement over the McKinley Tariff, but not an example of tariff reform. Cleveland’s lack of involvement hurt his reputation. He had campaigned on tariff reform, but allowed the bill to become law without his signature. The president rationalized that Wilson-Gorman was better than McKinley and so decided against a veto. The income tax provision survived and became law. In 1895, however, the Supreme Court ruled the tax unconstitutional. The Populists of the South and West labored under the disadvantage of a high protective tariff and, after the court decision, became convinced that the judicial system was working hand-in-glove with big business.

William McKinley-25^th President of the US from 1897-1901. During his term, the United States was involved in the Spanish-American War. After the Spanish-American War, the United States received the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico from Spain. Cuba became free but was not a United States territory.

William Jennings Bryan-Bryan was elected to Congress twice, 1890 and 1892. His influence grew rapidly, due largely to his strong advocacy of free silver, opposition to high protective tariffs and oratorical skills. In 1894, Bryan worked to unite the Democrats and Populists in Nebraska, but later lost a bid for a Senate seat. Out of politics, Bryan became the editor of the Omaha World-Herald and traveled widely as a lecturer on the Chautauqua circuit. Popular perception notwithstanding, Bryan's nomination at the Democratic convention in 1896 was not a spontaneous event fueled by his "cross of gold" speech. The gathering was electrified by his performance, but Bryan's handlers had long been at work securing votes from the delegates. His advocacy of free silver later brought him the Populist Party's nomination. During the campaign, Bryan became the first candidate to unabashedly seek voter support. He traveled thousands of miles by train and delivered hundreds of speeches, stopping even in the smallest of towns. His oratorical prowess earned him the nickname "boy orator of the Platte," but his detractors liked to point out that the Platte River was only six inches deep and a mile wide at the mouth. Bryan's limited message was instrumental in his loss to William McKinley, an event that ushered in another era of Republican leadership. Under Bryan's influence, the Democratic party underwent a dramatic change. The earlier Jacksonian legacy was one dedicated to limited government, but the party from 1896 onward promoted a more expansive role. Bryan remained active in a variety of causes, including peace, women's suffrage, prohibition and Christian fundamentalism. In 1925, he served as an associate counsel in the trial of John Scopes, a Tennessee instructor accused of teaching evolution in a public school. Bryan took the stand and underwent a withering cross-examination by Clarence Darrow. Bryan's side won the case, but he became the subject of widespread ridicule. He died less than a week later.

"Cross of Gold" Speech-Speech given during the Democratic nomination of 1896 by William Jennings Bryan. He was asking for the abandonment of the gold standard and for silver and gold to be utilized as a form of money. (bimetallism)

Populist Party Platform-The Populist (or People's) Party platform in 1892 incorporated a host of popular reform ideas, including the following:

· Australian (or Secret) Ballot. Voting was still conducted publicly in many areas, potentially subjecting voters to pressure or recrimination by employers and landlords. (This proposal was adopted almost everywhere in the United States in the early 20th century.)

· Popular Election of U.S. Senators. As provided in the Constitution (Article I, Section 3), senators were selected by the state legislatures, not by popular vote. It was believed that business lobbies exerted inordinate influence over the selection of these officials. (This plank would become part of the Constitution in 1913 when Amendment XVII was ratified.)

· Direct Democracy. The Populists urged the adoption of the initiative, referendum and recall as means to give the people a more direct voice in government. (Some or all of these procedures became part of the constitutions of many states during the early 20th century.)

· Banking Reform. The Populists believed that much of their economic hardship had been caused by bankers' unfair practices. They proposed to end the national banking system, a point of view not widely held. (The Populists failed with this proposal and a Federal Reserve System was established by law in 1913.)

· Government Ownership of the Railroads. Anger against the railroads for alleged price discrimination was so intense that the Populists advocated for federal appropriation. (Opponents charged the Populists with socialism and little public support existed for this plank. However, during the Theodore Roosevelt administration, steps were taken toward reform of the railroads.)

· Graduated Income Tax. The Populists viewed the graduated income tax as a means to pry loose a portion of the tremendous wealth of the nation's most prosperous citizens. A "graduated" tax meant that the rate of taxation would increase as one's income increased. (A step was made in this direction in the Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 when a uniform tax was imposed, but that portion of the law was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court the following year. Authority to impose such taxation was granted to Congress under Amendment XVI in 1913.)

· Free and Unlimited Coinage of Silver. The Populists in 1892 raised the silver issue, but not with the same fervor that would emerge four years later. (The free silver crusade would die a natural death in the years following 1896 as prosperity returned and the world's gold supply increased.)

Seward Purchase of Alaska-William H. Seward, secretary of state under both Lincoln and Johnson, was an ardent expansionist. He was committed to the spread of American influence throughout the Pacific as a means of enhancing the nation’s trade and military standing. Russia had been interested in selling Alaska for a number of years. The region seemed to have little value and was remote and hard to defend. Negotiations with the United States were opened during the Buchanan administration, but came to a halt with the opening of the Civil War. Seward actually began negotiations with the Russians before receiving authorization from Johnson. Nonetheless, when the outline of a deal was presented to the cabinet, Seward was surprised to find little opposition. The agreement was signed in March 1867 and transferred Alaska to the United States in return for a payment of $7.2 million, amounting to a price of about 2.5 cents per acre for an area twice the size of Texas. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate by a single vote. Criticism in the press was harsh, portraying the newly acquired wasteland as "Seward’s Folly," "Seward’s Icebox" or Johnson’s "polar bear garden." It was not until the 1890s with the discovery of gold that public attitudes regarding Alaska began to change.

Alfred Thayer Mahan/The Importance of Sea Power Upon History-Alfred Thayer Mahan was born in West Point, New York, educated at the U.S. Naval Academy and served as a Union naval officer during the Civil War. He was a lecturer at the Newport War College, where he prepared ideas that would later appear in his highly influential writings. Mahan served twice as president of the college, 1886 to 1889 and 1892 to 1893. The Influence of Sea Power upon History appeared in 1890 and The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire in 1892. These works made Mahan one of the leading spokesmen for the age of imperialism. He downplayed the philanthropic side of overseas involvement and concentrated on harsh political realities. According to his analysis of history, the great powers were those that maintained strong navies and merchant marines. He urged the United States forward in its naval building programs. Mahan also argued that modern navies needed repair and coaling stations. Those facilities would not be dependable if controlled by other nations. This reasoning inferred a rationale for American acquisition of port facilities throughout the world. Mahan wrote at the time of a great international arms race. He exerted a major impact on Theodore Roosevelt, as well as upon leaders in Britain, Japan and Germany.

Queen Lilliuokalani-Monarch of Hawaii in 1898 when the island nation was annexed by the US.

Spanish-American War-John Hay, the diplomat and writer, described the Spanish-American War as that "splendid little war." For some it was just that. The war lasted less than 4 months, only a few hundred men were killed in battle and a generation grown weary of their elders’ Civil War tales had its own conflict to embellish. No American conflict ever enjoyed greater popular support and exacted a lower cost. On paper, Spain appeared to be a formidable power. Upwards of 200,000 regular soldiers were stationed in Cuba and thousands of Cubans remained loyal to the Spanish government. By contrast, the U.S. army numbered only about 25,000 in 1898 and most of those soldiers had been confined to supervision of the Native Americans in the West. The major difference would be made by the navies. The Spanish fleet boasted impressive numbers, but was in poor repair and badly out of date. Beginning in the 1880s, the American navy had instituted expansion programs, heeding the calls of such figures as Alfred Thayer Mahan. The war was contested in two divergent theaters, the Far East and the Caribbean, attesting to the fact that the conflict had become more about imperialism and less about Cuban independence.

De Lome Letter-Enrique Dupuy de Lôme was the Spanish minister to Washington. On February 9, 1898, a letter he had written to a government official in Havana was published in the American press. The private correspondence labeled President McKinley as "a low politician" and a man who was weak and catered to the rabble. Many Americans probably shared those views, but were outraged when they were voiced by a foreign official. War fever began its spread throughout the country. De Lôme promptly submitted his resignation and informed the U.S. authorities that the letter represented his views, not those of his government. This public insult, coupled with looming congressional elections in the fall, pushed McKinley into reconsidering his view of the conflict in Cuba. That change was accelerated by the destruction of the Maine a few days later.

U.S.S. Maine-The U.S.S. Maine was dispatched to Havana harbor in January 1898, ostensibly as a good will gesture, but in reality to protect American lives and property in the troubled colony. On February 15, the Maine exploded, killing 260 men aboard. Public opinion in the United States, urged on by the yellow press, assumed that Spain had plotted the treachery. Scant attention was given to the possibility that an accidental internal explosion had occurred. Cries of "Remember the Maine, To Hell with Spain" were heard throughout the country and war fever increased. Congress responded by appropriating $50 million for military preparedness. President McKinley, despite his anger, still proceeded cautiously. A navy court of inquiry concluded on March 28 that the explosion had been caused by an external source, probably a mine.¹ Spain was blamed by an increasing segment of the American population. McKinley explored means to maintain peace and prayed earnestly over the dilemma, but soon realized that he could not hold back the push toward war. Theodore Roosevelt, a leader of the war faction, opined, "Let the fight come if it must. I rather hope that the fight will come soon. The clamor of the peace faction has convinced me that this country needs a war." President McKinley requested a declaration of war and Congress responded affirmatively on April 25, but had earlier disavowed any interest in annexing Cuba. The first military action followed within a week.

Rough Riders-At the outbreak of war with Spain in 1898, the U.S. Army was very small in numbers. This situation necessitated an immediate call for volunteers. President McKinley’s appeal was overwhelmingly answered by a generation that had grown up in the shadow of their elders’ Civil War glory. One group answering the call was the First Regiment of the U.S. Cavalry Volunteers, headed by Colonel Leonard Wood, a distinguished army doctor and Medal of Honor recipient. The regiment was actually the brainchild of Theodore Roosevelt, assistant secretary of the navy and Wood's friend. Roosevelt, realizing his own lack of military experience, suggested Wood for the command. The Rough Riders, as the regiment was soon known, comprised 1,250 men, including cowboys, Native Americans and eastern college athletes. Despite their dissimilarities, they were in excellent physical condition—a stark contrast to most of the other volunteer contingents.

Joseph Pulitzer/William Randolph Hearst/"Yellow Journalism"- "Yellow press" was a term applied to the popular, frankly imperialistic newspapers of New York City, circa 1890s. Today, "yellow journalism" refers to lurid publications that emphasize the sensational side of news stories. In the 1890s, a bitter circulation war erupted between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. In an spiraling contest of outrageous journalism, the newspapers used all means to attract readers—heavy doses of murder and sex, banner headlines and colored supplements. Pulitzer introduced the first comic strip, The Yellow Kid, drawn by Richard Outcault. The character became immensely popular and inspired the name for the sensationalist press of the era. Both Hearst and Pulitzer played leading roles in molding American public opinion about the conflict between Spain and its Cuban colony. The papers reported Spanish atrocities in exaggerated detail, but neglected to mention Cuban misdeeds. Both repeatedly called for armed intervention, then later, all-out war.

Teller Amendment (April 1898)- In order to reassure anti-imperialist elements on the eve of declaring war on Spain, Congress adopted a measure pledging that the United States had no designs on remaining in Cuba following conclusion of the conflict. Sen. Henry M. Teller of Colorado drafted an amendment to the resolution of war, which stated that the United States "hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people." The United States did not, as pledged, annex Cuba. Occupation continued until 1902 when the Platt Amendment was inserted into the Cuban constitution in return for the withdrawal of American forces. In 1903, the U.S. also secured rights to maintain a naval base at Guantánamo Bay, one of the world's great harbors, located at the southeastern tip of Cuba. American rights were reconfirmed in a formal treaty in 1934, an agreement that cannot be rescinded without mutual consent.

Dewey/Manila-Manila, in the Philippines, provided the front and back covers for the Spanish-American War.  It was in this harbor that the opening shots of the 106-day war were fired by the ships of Commodore Dewey on May 1st.  On August 13th Admiral Dewey's ships fired the closing volley that signaled the end of the Spanish Empire.  In the 104 days between, almost all of the combat was waged half-a-world away in the Caribbean.

Treaty of Paris-Following the Spanish defeats in Cuba and Puerto Rico, an armistice was arranged on August 12, 1898. Fighting was halted and Spain recognized Cuba's independence. The U.S. occupation of the Philippines was recognized pending final disposition of the islands. The final treaty was concluded in Paris on December 10, 1898 and provided for the following:

· Spain agreed to remove all soldiers from Cuba and recognize American occupation of the area; the U.S. had previously pledged not to annex the island in the Teller Amendment

· Spain ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States

· The United States compensated Spain for its losses with a payment of $20 million.

Ratification of this treaty was not a foregone conclusion in the United States Senate. A great debate ensued, pitting imperialists against anti-imperialists. The point of friction was the Philippines, which were deemed by many not to be an area of vital interest to the U.S. Proponents of expansion argued that other powers (probably Germany) would move into the Philippines if American did not. Further, the U.S. had a duty to export its superior democratic institutions to this region—a revival of the old manifest destiny argument. In February 1899, the treaty received the necessary two-thirds ratification approval by a single vote. The United States had emerged as a world power, but its public was divided over the nature of the role to be played. When the sun set on the evening of May 1, 1898 Manila Harbor was still filled with smoke--all that remained of a once mighty Spanish Naval squadron.  The defeat was unprecedented, Dewey accomplishing what few could have dreamed possible, and all without the loss of a single life (save for the heat stroke victim).  It would be however, a full week before officials in Washington, DC would hear the details of the American victory.

 

Venezuela Boundary Dispute-(1895), Conflict between Great Britain and Venezuela over the boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela; the controversy arose when gold was discovered in the disputed area. In 1895 Secretary of State Richard Olney declared that Great Britain's claim to this territory violated the Monroe Doctrine and demanded a settlement. The threat of war was averted when Great Britain agreed to arbitration in 1897. A Paris tribunal in 1899 awarded the land taken for gold back to Venezuela; the rest of the land in dispute reverted to Great Britain.

The Philippines/Filipino Insurrection-An insurrection smoldered in the Philippines prior to the Spanish-American War. The insurgents' leader, José Rizal, was captured and executed by Spanish authorities. His successor, Emilio Aguinaldo, then in exile, was helped to return by Commodore George Dewey following the latter's triumph at Manila Bay. In August 1898, many Filipinos rejoiced at the collapse of Spanish power and assumed that independence would soon follow. Despite Filipino aspirations, Dewey advised Washington that the native republican element was a minority and a strong hand was needed to prevent the islands from falling into other hands. Dewey’s caution was not without foundation. Germany had been in contact with Spain in hopes of purchasing the islands. Tensions rose to such a height that the German Far Eastern fleet threatened Dewey’s smaller navy prior to the events at Manila Bay. Only the timely appearance of British ships enabled the Americans to continue their conquest. (The British had no interest in seeing the U.S. become a power in the Pacific, but realized that war with Germany was on the horizon and desired strong relations with America.) In late 1898, with the fighting stopped and peace negotiations underway, President McKinley faced the dilemma of deciding what to do with the Philippines. Imperialist and anti-imperialist forces at home voiced their opinions. The president hesitated and turned to prayer. He concluded that the United States should accept control of the Philippines to educate and Christianize the natives—overlooking the fact that the overwhelming majority of the islands’ population was Roman Catholic. Filipino republican leaders were incensed with the prospect of a continuing American presence in their homeland. Fighting broke out in February 1899, following the shooting of three Filipinos by U.S. soldiers in suburban Manila. The insurrection raged for more than two years, exacting a far higher toll than the Spanish-American War. More than 120,000 American soldiers served in the conflict; at least 4,200 were killed. More than 16,000 Filipino fighters died. Atrocities were common and committed by both sides. Further, a terrible toll was taken among the civilian populace with an estimated 200,000 succumbing to famine and disease. The Filipino forces were no match for the Americans in open combat, but more than held their own in guerilla warfare. The insurgent forces split their command among a number of regional theaters, forcing the Americans to conduct extremely difficult operations in a variety of jungle locations. In March 1901, Aguinaldo was captured. He realized that the insurgent cause was ultimately hopeless and called for an end to resistance. Nevertheless, sporadic fighting continued in the outlying areas until early 1902.

Open Door Notes-China was in political and economic disarray as the end of the 19th century approached. The giant was not recognized as a sovereign nation by the major powers, who were busy elbowing one another for trading privileges and plotting how the country could be partitioned. The imperial nations sought spheres of influence and claimed extraterritorial rights in China. The United States took Far Eastern matters more seriously after the Spanish-American War, when they came into possession of the Philippines. In the fall of 1898, President McKinley stated his desire for the creation of an "open door" that would allow all trading nations access to the Chinese market. The following year, Secretary of State John Hay sought a formal endorsement of the concept by circulating diplomatic notes among the major powers, enabling the secretary to be credited with authoring the Open Door policy. Hay’s proposal called for the establishment of equal trading rights to all nations in all parts of China and for recognition of Chinese territorial integrity (meaning that the country should not be carved up). The impact of such a policy would be to put all of the imperial nations on an equal footing and minimize the power of those nations with existing spheres of influence. No nation formally agreed to Hay’s policy; each used the other nations' reluctance to endorse the Open Door as an excuse for their own inaction. An undeterred Hay simply announced that agreement had been reached. Only Russia and Japan voiced displeasure. On the surface, it appeared that the United States had advanced a reform viewpoint, but the truth was otherwise. The U.S. had no sphere of influence in China, but had long maintained an active trade there. If other nations were to partition China, the United States would likely be excluded from future commercial activities. In short, Hay was simply trying to protect the prospects of American businessmen and investors. Challenges to the Open Door policy would be mounted frequently in the ensuing years, including the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 in which Chinese nationalists resorted to armed opposition in an attempt to end foreign occupation of their country; Japanese incursions into Manchuria following the Russo-Japanese War; and the "21 Demands" levied by Japan on China in 1915. An effort was made to shore up the Open Door in 1921-22 at the Washington Naval Conference, but a challenge was again mounted by the Japanese in the 1930s as they expanded their control in Manchuria. China would not be recognized as a sovereign state until after World War II.

Boxer Rebellion-Commercial concessions had been forced on China dating to the end of the Opium Wars (1839-1842), a contrived series of conflicts engineered by British trading interests. France, Germany and Russia later demanded and received similar treatment. Paramount among the great powers’ requirements was the granting of treaty ports and extraterritorial status. China was later divided into spheres of influence in the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), allowing outside nations even greater latitude. Understandably, the Chinese deeply resented the presence of the great powers and the weakness of their own government. China had effectively lost its independence. One reaction to this exploitation was the emergence of a clandestine martial arts society referred to by the English as the "Boxers" (their Chinese name being translated as "righteous harmonious fists"). The nativist group launched a series of attacks against foreigners, Chinese Christians and complicit government officials. The high point of the rebellion occurred in mid-1900, when Beijing was occupied by 140,000 Boxers. They laid siege to the British legation, which harbored most of the international community. The entrenched foreigners held out for two months until a hastily arranged multinational military force managed to break the siege, scattering the Boxers. As a result of the rebellion, China was subjected to even greater humiliation. An indemnity of more than $300 million was levied on the nearly bankrupt nation and the government was forced to allow the permanent quartering of foreign soldiers in Beijing. The United States attempted to mitigate some of the financial damage by later using much of its share of the reparations to fund scholarships for Chinese students studying in America. From the international perspective, the Boxer Rebellion increased support for the Open Door policy. The great powers realized that warring among themselves would inhibit their ability to exploit China.

Puerto Rico, Samoa, Guam-All became commonwealths of the US after the Spanish-American War in 1898. They each have their own local government just like any state, but they are not considered states. An elected governor is the highest official on the island, but the President of the US is considered their official leader.

Platt Amendment-Inspired by Secretary of State Elihu Root and drafted by Connecticut senator Orville H. Platt, the Platt Amendment gave the United States an oversight role in Cuban affairs and was formally incorporated into the Cuban constitution. U.S. consent was required for all Cuban treaties and trade agreements. More significantly, the United States was given "the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty . . . ." The Platt Amendment, an unwelcome limitation on Cuban independence, was not abrogated until 1934.

Jones Act-The Jones Act was passed by Congress in 1917, creating territorial status for Puerto Rico and making its people citizens of the United States.

National Woman Suffrage Association-Formed in 1890, NAWSA was the result of a merger between two rival factions--the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), led by Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe. These opposing groups were organized in the late 1860s, partly as the result of a disagreement over strategy. NWSA favored women's enfranchisement through a federal constitutional amendment, while AWSA believed success could be more easily achieved through state-by-state campaigns. NAWSA combined both of these techniques, securing the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 through a series of well-orchestrated state campaigns under the dynamic direction of Carrie Chapman Catt. With NAWSA's primary goal of women's enfranchisement now a reality, the organization was transformed into the League of Women Voters.

Susan B. Anthony-(1820-1906), women's rights leader. Anthony was born in Adams, Massachusetts. Her father, a Quaker, was excluded from his meeting when he married her mother, a Baptist, and Susan, while much affected by her Quaker background, was also shaped by the proud independence this exclusion gave her family. In the depression of 1837, the family's economic security was shaken, and Anthony became a teacher, the only profession open to middle-class women. She never married and was a lifelong self-supporting woman. Her most distinctive contribution to the early women's rights movement was her appreciation of the importance of economic independence to women's emancipation. In 1851, while visiting in nearby Seneca Falls, New York, Anthony met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who had organized the first women's rights convention in 1848. Together they led the women's rights movement for the next half century. They first tried to organize a women's temperance society, but that reform proved too church-bound for their feminist concerns. In 1854, they turned to the creation of a women's rights movement per se. While Cady Stanton wrote articles and declarations to legislatures, Anthony discovered her own special genius, the organization of women into a sustained political movement. From 1854 to 1860, she circulated petitions demanding married women's rights to property, wages, and the custody of their children in the event of a divorce, and all women's rights to the suffrage. In 1860, all but the vote were secured by New York's landmark Married Women's Property Act.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton-(1815-1902), women's rights leader. Born in Johnstown, New York, Elizabeth Cady received the best female education available at the time, at Emma Willard's Academy, but regretted not having a full-fledged college education. She spent her postacademy years like other young women of leisure, in visiting and social activities, primarily at the home of her cousin, the abolitionist Gerrit Smith. There she fell in love with another abolitionist, Henry B. Stanton. An older, romantic figure, Henry was part of the exciting world of reform and politics to which she was drawn. Despite her father's opposition, they married in 1840 and for their honeymoon went to London to attend the World's Antislavery Convention. There Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott, the leading American female abolitionist, and began to study the Anglo-American traditions of women's rights. In 1847, the Stantons moved to rural Seneca Falls, New York, where Elizabeth bore the last three of their seven children and grew resentful of her domestic confinement. In 1848, with the help of Mott, she organized the world's first women's rights convention. Despite Mott's reluctance, she insisted on including the right to woman suffrage in its resolutions. In 1851, Cady Stanton met Susan B. Anthony, with whom she formed a lifelong partnership based on their common dedication to women's emancipation. Three years later, she addressed the New York legislature on an omnibus women's rights bill. In 1860, most of the legal reforms she sought in women's status, with the notable exception of enfranchisement, were secured.

Bradwell v. Illinois-

 

Argued:	January 18, 1873
Decided:	April 15, 1873
Facts of the Case Myra Bradwell asserted her right to a license to practice law in Illinois by virtue of her status as a United States citizen. The judges of the Illinois Supreme Court denied her application with only one judge dissenting.
Question Presented Is the right to obtain a license to practice law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to all citizens of the United States?
Conclusion No. While the Court agreed that all citizens enjoy certain privileges and immunities which individual states cannot take away, it did not agree that the right to practice law in a state's courts is one of them. There was no agreement, argued Justice Miller, that this right depended on citizenship. In his concurrence, Justice Bradley went above and beyond the constitutional explanations of the case to describe the reasons why it was natural and proper for women to be excluded from the legal profession. He cited the importance of maintaining the "respective spheres of man and woman," with women performing the duties of motherhood and wife in accordance with the "law of the Creator."

Women’s Christian Temperance Movement-This organization grew out of an aggressive women's temperance movement in Washington Court House, Ohio, in 1874 and became a national crusader for prohibition. After the Ohio women ended the local liquor trade with a combination of marches, negotiations, and axes wielded in saloons, they formed the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (wctu). It was small and largely unsuccessful until Frances Willard became its president in 1879. A former schoolteacher, president of a women's college, and dean of women at Northwestern University, Willard took over the leadership of a group of mostly middle-class, Protestant women and tried at first to turn it into an organization advocating socialism. In this she failed, but the wctu gained in membership—150,000 by 1890. Arguing that alcohol consumption was related to a poor environment, the group sought to improve the conditions of the working class—more than did most male temperance reformers. In some ways, too, the wctu challenged patriarchy and the nuclear family, seeking more power for women inside the home and more opportunity outside it, as well as advocating equal pay for equal work. It also gave strong support to the national Prohibition party. (Some members, however, disagreed with this policy and split off to form the Non-Partisan wctu.) Joining with other groups such as the Anti-Saloon League, the wctu worked at first for prohibition at the state level before turning to the fight for a national constitutional amendment. Although the wctu proved stronger than its sister groups after Prohibition became a reality in 1919, the advent of women's suffrage the next year divided its members. Like many other women's groups, the organization debated the question of what women's new role in politics should be. With the subsequent failure of Prohibition, the wctu's influence steadily declined.

Minor v. Happersett-In the case of Minor v. Happersett (1874) the Supreme Court decreed that the state of Missouri had been within its constitutional rights in denying a woman applicant, Virginia Minor, the right to vote. The feminist Victoria Woodhull had urged women to try to vote, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment forbade the states to limit citizens' rights. This "new departure" was adopted by the National Woman Suffrage Association (nwsa), and Susan B. Anthony organized seventy suffragists nationwide—among them, Minor—to vote in the 1872 elections. Minor was denied entrance to the Missouri polls by the registrar, Reese Happersett, on the ground that the state constitution limited voting to males. With her husband (because married women could not bring legal action on their own), she then sued the registrar, arguing that her rights of citizenship had been unlawfully abridged. When the case reached the Supreme Court, however, the justices declared that voting was not among the privileges guaranteed to all citizens and was therefore not protected by the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision ended the "new departure," convincing the nwsa that woman suffrage could be won only by a new constitutional amendment.

Anti-Saloon League-Congregationalist minister and temperance activist Howard Hyde Russell started the Anti-Saloon League of Ohio in 1893. One of his recruits was Wayne Wheeler, a recent graduate of Oberlin who became the organization's chief administrator for a quarter of a century. The Ohioans merged with a similar group in Washington, D.C., to form the national Anti-Saloon League in 1895. Under Wheeler's leadership, the league focused on one issue at a time, avoiding partisanship: its unofficial motto was "It is better to be united in a bad fight than divided in a good one." It won prominence when it helped unseat Myron Herrick, Ohio's Republican governor and one of the league's foes, in 1905. The league organized at the grass-roots level, working through churches and carefully questioning politicians about their views on temperance and then endorsing or opposing them accordingly, no matter what their stands on other issues, their party affiliation, or their progressivism. Unlike other such groups, the Anti-Saloon League worked with the two major parties rather than backing the small Prohibition party. Wheeler and the Anti-Saloon League had considerable national influence. The league concentrated on lobbying legislatures on behalf of antiliquor laws and were especially successful in the South. Wheeler helped draft both the Eighteenth Amendment, which enacted national Prohibition in 1919, and the Volstead Act, which created the machinery to enforce it. The league's lobbying contributed to the passage of these measures, and its resources defended them in the courts. But when the Democrats nominated the antiprohibition Alfred E. Smith, governor of New York, for president in 1928, the league became tied more closely to the Republican party. With the death of Wheeler, the rise of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and the end of Prohibition in 1933, the Anti-Saloon League faded in importance.

Theodore Roosevelt-26^th President of the US from 1901-1909. He was a progressive Republican that sought reforms in many different areas of life. He was the first president to win the Nobel Peace Prize; he was awarded it for the Russo-Japanese Treaty.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty-(1901) Negotiations began during the McKinley administration between John Hay, the U.S. secretary of state, and Lord Julian Pauncefote, the British ambassador to Washington. Initial bargaining was slowed by disagreements over fortifying the proposed canal and seeking other signatories for any agreement that might be reached. Agreement was reached late in the year after Roosevelt had succeeded the slain McKinley. The following points were approved by both nations:

· The U.S. was authorized to construct and manage a Central American canal

· The U.S. was to guarantee the neutrality of the canal and was authorized to fortify the area, if necessary

· The canal was to be open to all nations; rates were to be fair and equal.

The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty superceded the earlier Clayton-Bulwer agreement and would be followed by the failed Hay-Herrán Treaty and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, both in 1903.

 

Newlands Reclamation Act-Rep. Francis G. Newlands of Nevada was the prime moving force behind an effort to extend federal assistance to farmers and ranchers who worked the arid lands of the West. Under a measure passed in 1902, a self-perpetuating funding system was established:

· The federal government would plan, construct and manage irrigation projects for the purpose of reclaiming marginal lands

· Money for these projects would be generated by the sale of public lands

· The on-going expenses of the projects would be supported by fees paid by farmers and ranchers using the water.

This measure, along with subsequent legislation, brought thousands of new acres under cultivation and placed the federal government front and center in the water distribution question in the West.

 

Women’s Trade Union League-This organization sought to organize working women into trade unions while introducing their everyday concerns about wages and working conditions to the growing women's rights movement. The Women's Trade Union League (wtul) was formed in 1903. Modeled on a similar league in England, it faced problems in outlook from its beginnings. Its members included progressive reformers from settlement houses and the Young Women's Christian Association, who sought federal and state protective legislation, and working women from the trade union movement, who emphasized the need to organize labor. Both groups had to deal with the chauvinism of male reformers and the increasingly conservative American Federation of Labor. Thus, they turned to groups created inside and outside the league to promote education and better working conditions and to boycott companies guilty of bias or overpricing, looking to protective laws only when all other means had failed. The wtul did succeed in advancing women's education, better wages, job safety, and sexual and racial integration. Especially in its early years under the leadership of Margaret Robins, it helped women during strikes set up picket lines, counter police violence, build up public opinion behind their efforts, and support their families. The wtul also joined other women's groups to lobby state and national politicians. But the organization broke up in 1950 amid antiunionism, McCarthyism, and the post-World War II baby boom that returned many wartime working women to the home. It declared—prematurely—that it had achieved its goals.

Northern Securities Co. v. US-In 1901, the Northern Securities Company was formed as a holding company in the business-friendly state of New Jersey. The new venture brought together the talents and wealth of J.P. Morgan and James J. Hill on one side and E.H. Harriman on the other. These former competitors joined forces in an effort to dominate railroad traffic in the West. The NSC controlled the stock of the Great Northern, Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railroads. Noting that traffic between Chicago and the Northwest was monopolized, Roosevelt in 1902 ordered Attorney General Philander C. Knox to bring suit, alleging restraint of trade. Morgan and Mark Hanna pleaded personally with the president to halt the action, but to no avail. In court, Northern Securities attorneys argued that the company did not really engage in interstate commerce, but simply was a stockholder. By the narrowest of margins, five to four, the Supreme Court in 1904 sided with the government and ordered the NSC's breakup. This decision was notable for the following reasons:

· The Supreme Court reversed a position taken previously in the E.C. Knight case

· The giant push of E.H. Harriman to consolidate the nation’s railroads was halted

· Enthusiasm for creating holding companies was dampened

· Roosevelt’s popularity skyrocketed among the masses.

 

Roosevelt Corollary-May 1904 and later expanded in his annual message to Congress in December, Roosevelt stated what would become known as his corollary (logical extension of) the Monroe Doctrine. This change in policy was deemed necessary because of a desire to avoid having European powers come to the Western Hemisphere for the purpose of collecting debts. It was feared that those nations might come as earnest creditors, but remain as occupying powers. This prospect was especially unwelcome at this time when the United States was pushing full steam ahead with the construction of the canal in Panama. Defensive interests demanded that the Caribbean be kept as an "American lake." Roosevelt felt that the United States had a "moral mandate" to enforce proper behavior among the nations of Latin America.

Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty-The joint efforts of John Hay, U.S. secretary of state, and Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the former engineer for the French canal company and the recently appointed Panamanian envoy to the United States, yielded an agreement acceptable to Roosevelt. Terms included the following:

· The United States was to receive rights to a canal zone which was to extend five miles on either side of the route

· Panama was to receive a payment of $10 million

· Panama was to receive annual rental payments of $250,000.

Russo-Japanese War-At the conclusion of the Boxer Rebellion, the major powers agreed to remove their expeditionary forces from China, except for those soldiers occupying Beijing. The evacuation was completed in the fall of 1901 by all nations except Russia, which maintained a large presence in Manchuria and northern Korea. The Japanese had undergone rapid westernization at the end of the 19th century and developed a strong commercial position in China. They lacked vital domestic natural resources, iron and coal in particular, but had found those items in abundance in China. They viewed the continuing presence of Russia as a threat to their access to those valuable Chinese resources. Efforts by the great powers to ease tensions between Russia and Japan made little progress. Britain, still the dominant military force, re-deployed its Far Eastern fleet to waters closer to home in response to continuing friction with Germany. Japan quickly filled the vacuum. The Russo-Japanese War was fought on Chinese soil with China a neutral observer. Russia was anxious for the conflict, regarding Japan as militarily weak and hoping to divert attention from domestic turmoil. In February 1904, Japan struck first without a declaration of war, and attacked Port Arthur on the western extremity of the Liaotung peninsula. In the ensuing months, the world was astounded by a string of Japanese successes. The most notable encounter was the destruction of the Russian fleet in May 1905 at Tsushima Strait, the area between the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Both sides, however, desired peace. Russia was not only losing militarily, but was also experiencing a revolution at home. Japan found that its success came at the price of near bankruptcy. Theodore Roosevelt offered mediation, summoning representatives of the warring parties to Portsmouth, New Hampshire in the summer of 1905. Peace was concluded in September and provided for the following:

· Both Japan and Russia pledged to withdraw from Manchuria

· Russia turned over a number of valuable port leases in China to Japan

· Japan received the southern half of Sakhalin Island in the Sea of Okhotsk north of Japan.

One important item was not included in the final peace terms—reparations. Japan, staggering under the cost of the war, had sought $600 million from Russia. Roosevelt refused to accept this provision, a slight the Japanese would long remember. The Russo-Japanese War was a major embarrassment to Russia, which became the first major modern European power to be defeated by an Asian nation. Public outrage played prominently in the Russian Revolution of 1905. Japan, however, emerged as a world power and believed that its hegemony in the Far East would be unchallenged.

Treaty of Portsmouth-Treaty ending the Russo-Japanese War. It was signed at the Portsmouth Naval Base, New Hampshire, on Sept. 5, 1905. Negotiations leading up to the treaty began in the spring of 1905 when Russia had suffered severe defeats and Japan was in financial difficulties. Therefore, both nations indicated a desire for peace. Germany, the United States, and Great Britain were instrumental in forcing conciliation between the belligerents. However, the United States and Britain exacted certain concessions from Japan before smoothing the way for the treaty. President Theodore Roosevelt demanded that Japan follow the Open Door policy in Manchuria and return the region to Chinese administration. In the Taft-Katsura agreement of July, 1905, Roosevelt agreed to Japanese dominance in Korea in return for American freedom of action in the Philippines. Great Britain had the Anglo-Japanese treaty extended to cover all of E Asia and in return also gave Japan a free hand in Korea. Under the terms of the Portsmouth agreement, Russia was compelled to recognize Korea's independence and the "paramount political, military, and economic interests" of Japan in Korea. Russia also agreed to place Manchuria again under the sovereignty of China, and all foreign troops were to be removed. The railway lines in S Manchuria, constructed by Russia, were ceded to Japan without payment. The disputed Liaodong peninsula (see Liaoning), containing the ports of Dalian and Port Arthur (see Lüshun, was turned over to Japan, as was the southern part of the island of Sakhalin. Japan also obtained fishing rights in the waters adjacent to the Russian Far East. The Treaty of Portsmouth marked the temporary decline of Russian power in East Asia and the emergence of Japan as the strongest power in the area.

Taft-Katsura Agreement- In the Taft-Katsura agreement of July, 1905, Roosevelt agreed to Japanese dominance in Korea in return for American freedom of action in the Philippines.-

 

Niagara Movement/NAACP- This was a major step on the road to black militancy. Its beginnings may be traced to the publication in 1903 of The Souls of Black Folk by W. E. B. Du Bois, the first black American to earn a doctorate from Harvard. That book included an essay, "Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others," which attacked Washington'sAtlanta Compromise speech and accused him of abandoning the fight for black political rights and accepting segregation in exchange for illusory economic gains. In 1905, Du Bois and several other black supporters wishing to meet gathered at Niagara Falls, but on the Canadian side since no hotel on the American side would allow them to register. They drafted a list of demands that included an end to segregation and to discrimination in unions, the courts, and public accommodations, as well as equality of economic and educational opportunity. Although the Niagara movement attracted the attention of like-minded whites, it had little impact on legislative or popular opinion. But after race riots in Springfield, Illinois, in 1909, a group of white progressives—including the social worker Jane Addams, the philosopher John Dewey, the novelist William Dean Howells, and the editor Oswald Garrison Villard, a grandson of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison—formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (naacp). They adopted many of the goals of the Niagara movement and hired its leader, Du Bois, as director of publicity and research, and editor of their journal, Crisis.

W.E.B. DuBois- African-American author and teacher who helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). A recipient of the World Peace Council Prize (1952) and the Soviet Lenin Peace Prize (1959), Du Bois became a member of the Communist party in 1961 and a citizen of Ghana, where he served as director of the Encyclopedia Africana.

Jacob Riis/How the Other Lives- Jacob Riis, the third of fifteen children, was born in Ribe, Denmark, on 3rd May, 1849. He worked as a carpenter in Copenhagen before emigrating to the United States in 1870. Unable to find work, he was often forced to spend the night in police station lodging houses. Riis did a variety of menial jobs before finding work with a news bureau in New York in 1873. The following year he was recruited by the South Brooklyn News. In 1877 Riis became a police reporter for the New York Tribune. Aware of what it was like to live in poverty, Riis was determined to use this opportunity to employ his journalistic skills to communicate this to the public. He constantly argued that the "poor were the victims rather than the makers of their fate". In 1888 Riis was employed as a photo-journalist by the New York Evening Sun. Riis was among the first photographers to use flash powder, which enabled him to photograph interiors and exteriors of the slums at night. He also became associated with what later became known as muckraking journalism. In December, 1889, an account of city life, illustrated by photographs, appeared in Scribner's Magazine. This created a great deal of interest and the following year, a full-length version, How the Other Half Lives, was published. The book was seen by Theodore Roosevelt, the New York Police Commissioner, and he had the city police lodging houses that were featured in the book closed down. Over the next twenty-five years Riis wrote and lectured on the problems of the poor. This included magic lantern shows and one observer noted that "his viewers moaned, shuddered, fainted and even talked to the photographs he projected, reacting to the slides not as images but as a virtual reality that transported the new York slum world directly into the lecture hall." Riis also wrote over a dozen books including Children of the Poor (1892), Out of Mulberry Street (1898), The Battle With the Slum (1902) and Children of the Tenement (1903).

Lochner v. New York-

 

Argued:	February 23, 1905
Decided:	April 17, 1905
Facts of the Case The state of New York enacted a statute forbidding bakers to work more than 60 hours a week or 10 hours a day.
Question Presented Does the New York law violate the liberty protected by due process of the Fourteenth Amendment?
Conclusion The Court invalidated the New York law. The majority (through Peckham) maintained that the statute interfered with the freedom of contract, and thus the Fourteenth Amendment's right to liberty afforded to employer and employee. The Court viewed the statute as a labor law; the state had no reasonable ground for interfering with liberty by determining the hours of labor

Hepburn Act- (June 29, 1906) Law that strengthened the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission by increasing its membership from five to seven and allowing it to determine reasonable rates upon the complaint of a shipper. The act also prohibited free railroad passes and forbade railroads to haul commodities they had produced themselves.

Upton Sinclair/The Jungle- Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle tells the epic tragedy of a Lithuanian immigrant Jurgis Rudkus and a group of his friends and relatives. Penniless and unable to speak English, they are mercilessly exploited by employers, foremen, police, political bosses, and others with access to power in Packingtown. Women are forced into prostitution; older men, unable to work, are left to starve. Jurgis loses his wife in childbirth, and his infant son drowns in a pool of stinking water outside their shack. The novel also includes gruesome descriptions of food production: tubercular beef, the grinding up of poisoned rats, and even workers falling into vats and emerging as Durham's Pure Leaf Lard. Published in January 1906, The Jungle unleashed a storm of public indignation. The scene had already been set by the "embalmed beef" scandal in the Spanish-American War of 1898 (concerning the quality of food supplied to U.S. troops) and the muckraking exposés of journalists like Samuel Hopkins Adams on patent medicines and Charles Edward Russell on the "Beef Trust." But the impact of The Jungle was probably decisive. Within six months of its publication a Pure Food and Drug Act and a Meat Inspection Act had been passed. The irony is that Sinclair included the horrific details on meat production only in order to bolster his main theme, the exploitation of immigrant labor and the need for socialism. As he later wrote: "I aimed at the public's heart and by accident hit it in the stomach." Undeterred, Sinclair invested the proceeds from his masterpiece in the Helicon Hall colony, an experimental socialist community at Englewood, New Jersey.

Meat Inspection Act- As a companion measure to the Pure Food and Drug Act, the Meat Inspection Act brought the following reforms to the processing of cattle, sheep, horses, swine and goats destined for human consumption:

· All animals were required to pass an inspection by the U.S. Drug Administration prior to slaughter

· All carcasses were subject to a post-mortem inspection

· Cleanliness standards were established for slaughterhouses and processing plants.

Pure Food and Drug Act- Public pressure forced a reluctant Congress to consider a Pure Food and Drug bill in 1906. Provisions of the measure included the following:

· Creation of the Food and Drug Administration, which was entrusted with the responsibility of testing all foods and drugs destined for human consumption

· The requirement for prescriptions from licensed physicians before a patient could purchase certain drugs

· The requirement of label warnings on habit-forming drugs.

Passage of the measure in Congress was not assured. The lobbying association representing the medicine makers was vocal and well-funded, as were representatives of the "beef trust" and other food producers. Some members of Congress, especially a number of Southern senators, opposed the bill as constitutionally unsound. The active involvement of Theodore Roosevelt, who was repulsed by slaughterhouse practices described in Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, successfully overcame the lawmakers’ reluctance. The first casualty of this legislation was the patent medicine industry; few of the nostrums gained certification from the FDA. The law was strengthened in 1911 when additional provisions were added to combat fraudulent labeling.

National Municipal League- Founded in 1894, the National Municipal League grew out of the first National Conference for Good Government held in Philadelphia. The League's distinctive method of developing expert models, which could be adapted by cities, counties, or states to improve the conduct of public affairs, has achieved significant change in the structure and policy of local government in nearly every state. In 1920, the League moved to New York City. In 1986, the League adopted a new name, National Civic League, and, in 1989, moved to Denver, Colorado.

 

Root-Takahira Agreement- Relations between Japan and the United States remained tense during Theodore Roosevelt's second term. Tensions had developed earlier over spheres of influence in the Far East and the treatment of Japanese living in the U.S. Further, Roosevelt had never been forgiven for his opposition to Russian reparations for the Japanese at the end of the earlier war between those two nations. Many American farmers and laborers on the West Coast resented competition from hard-working Japanese immigrants. Conditions had deteriorated so badly by 1907 that there was talk of war in both countries. A small, positive step was taken in 1907 when the United States and Japan concluded the so-called "Gentlemen's Agreement," in which Japan promised to slow the exodus of workers destined for the U.S. Racial antipathy remained, however, particularly in California. Roosevelt was dedicated to further improving relations, realizing that the American position in the Philippines would be difficult to maintain against a Japanese adversary. An exchange of notes followed between Elihu Root, the U.S. secretary of state, and Takahira Kogoro, the Japanese ambassador in Washington. The resulting position statements included the following:

· A pledge to maintain the status quo in the Far East

· Recognition of China's independence and territorial integrity, and support for continuation of the Open Door policy

· An agreement to mutual consultation in the event of future Far Eastern crises.

The Root-Takahira Agreement appeared to be a great success, given that the war drums in both nations were quieted. However, implicit in the understanding was American recognition of two controversial Japanese actions—the annexation of Korea and their increasing dominance in Manchuria. Indeed, the Japanese were espousing a type of Monroe Doctrine for the Far East, but one that assigned Japan a far more powerful economic role than the United States had in Latin America.

Muller v. Oregon-

 

Argued:	January 15, 1908
Decided:	February 24, 1908
Facts of the Case Oregon enacted a law that limited women to ten hours of work in factories and laundries.
Question Presented Does the Oregon law violate a woman's freedom of contract implicit in the liberty protected by due process of the Fourteenth Amendment?
Conclusion There was no constitutional violation. The factory and laundry owners claimed that there was no reasonable connection between the law and public health, safety, or welfare. In a famous brief in defense of the Oregon law, attorney Louis Brandeis elaborately detailed expert reports on the harmful physical, economic and social effects of long working hours on women. Brewer's opinion was based on the proposition that physical and social differences between the sexes warranted a different rule respecting labor contracts. Theretofore, gender was not a basis for such distinctions. Brewer's opinion conveyed the accepted wisdom of the day: that women were unequal and inferior to men.

Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire- One of the nation's worst industrial tragedies, the Triangle Shirtwaist fire had a profound impact on women's unionism and job safety and affected local and national politics in the process. On March 25, 1911, a fire swept through the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in the Greenwich Village section of New York City, a sweatshop where workers, mostly women, did low-paying piecework in a building with no safety precautions. The blaze killed 146 workers who were trapped by the lack of fire escapes and management's practice of locking all the exits to keep workers from leaving the job for breaks. The factory's owners were indicted, but a jury acquitted them, fanning the outrage over the tragedy. The fire led to stepped-up efforts on the part of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, which had been founded in 1900 to organize the women who worked in the Triangle factory and improve working conditions in sweatshops. The public outcry also prompted the creation of a state commission, which investigated both the factory in question and industrial working conditions generally. In 1914, its report called for widespread changes. New York's state legislature balked at first but finally acted under pressure from Tammany Hall and its boss, Charles Francis Murphy, and two lawmakers who would go on to prominence, State Senator Robert Wagner, later a U.S. senator, and Assemblyman Alfred E. Smith, later governor and a presidential candidate. New laws imposed tougher municipal building codes and more stringent factory inspections in New York and elsewhere.

17^th Amendment- The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. Passed May 13, 1912. Ratified April 8, 1913.

Guinn v. US- Guinn v. United States is an important U.S. Supreme Court case dealing with Jim Crow laws, which helped enforce segregation in the United States between 1865 and 1964. Argued before the court on October 17, 1913, the court handed down its decisions on June 21, 1915. Ruling that an Oklahoma law denied the right to vote was unconstitional, the case helped defend voting rights for African Americans.

Margaret Sanger/birth control- Margaret Sanger was educated as and worked as a nurse. In her work with poor women on the Lower East Side of New York, she was aware of the effects of unplanned and unwelcome pregnancies. Her mother's health had suffered as she bore eleven children. She came to believe in the importance to women's lives and women's health of the availability of birth control, a term which she's credited with inventing. In 1912, Sanger gave up nursing work to dedicate herself to the distribution of birth control information. However, the Comstock Act of 1873 was used to forbid distribution of birth control devices and information. She wrote articles on health for the Socialist Party paper, the Call, and collected and published articles as What Every Girl Should Know (1916) and What Every Mother Should Know (1917). In 1913 she went to Europe, founding a paper, Woman Rebel, on her return. She was indicted for "mailing obscenities," fled to Europe, and the indictment was withdrawn. In 1914 she founded the National Birth Control League which was taken over by Mary Ware Dennett and others while Sanger was in Europe. In 1916 (1917 according to some sources), Sanger set up the first birth control clinic in the United States, and the following year, she was sent to the workhouse for "creating a public nuisance." Her many arrests and prosecutions, and the resulting outcries, helped lead to changes in laws giving doctors the right to give birth control advice (and later, birth control devices) to patients. In 1927 Sanger helped organize the first World Population Conference in Geneva. In 1942, after several organizational mergers and name changes, Planned Parenthood Federation came into being. Sanger wrote many books and articles on birth control, marriage and an autobiography (the latter in 1938). Her first marriage, to William Sanger in 1900, ended in divorce in 1920; she was remarried in 1922 to J. Noah H. Slee, though she kept her by-then-famous (or infamous) name. Today, organizations and individuals which oppose abortion and, sometimes, birth control, have charged Sanger with eugenicism and racism.  Sanger supporters consider the charges exaggerated or false.

19^th Amendment- The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Passed June 4, 1919. Ratified August 18, 1920.

Adkins v. Children’s Hospital-

 

Argued:	March 14, 1923
Decided:	April 9, 1923
Facts of the Case In 1918, Congress enacted a law which guaranteed a minimum wage to women and children employed in the District of Columbia. This case was decided together with Children's Hospital v. Lyons.
Question Presented Did the law interfere with the ability of employers and employees to enter into contracts with each other without assuring due process of law, a freedom guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment?
Conclusion The Court found that upholding the statute would dangerously extend the police power of the state and, thus, found it unconstitutional. Justice Sutherland recognized that the freedom of individuals to make contracts is not absolute and curtailments of this right may be justified in the face of "exceptional circumstances." However, in this case, the statute's implementation procedures were overly vague and did not act to regulate the character or method of wage payments, or the conditions and hours of labor, areas in which regulation to protect the public welfare were legitimate. The Congress simply had enacted a "price-fixing law."

William H. Taft-27^th President of the US from 1909-1913. He was the first president to go to the Supreme Court after his presidency.

Ballinger/Pinchot Affair-In 1909, Taft appointed Richard Ballinger Secretary of the Interior. While Secretary, he was accused by L. R. Glavis of the Land Office of having halted investigation into the legality of certain private coal-land claims in Alaska. With Taft's approval, Glavis was dismissed from service. Glavis took his case to the public in a series of articles in Collier's Weekly that roused the conservationists. Led by Gifford Pinchot, they demanded an investigation. A congressional committee exonerated Ballinger, but the questioning of committee counsel Louis D. Brandeis made the Secretary's anticonservationism clear; he resigned in Mar., 1911. The incident split the Republican party and helped turn the election of 1912 against Taft.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff-The Republican platform of 1908 supported a downward reform of the tariff. For this purpose, President Taft called Congress into special session. Sereno E. Payne, a Republican congressman from New York, sponsored a tariff bill that called for several reduced rates, which the House swiftly passed. The Senate responded with a bill authored by Nelson W. Aldrich, a Republican multi-millionaire from Rhode Island, that effected fewer downward revisions and stepped up many rates. Aldrich had anticipated rapid approval of his measure, but Robert M. La Follette mounted a lengthy examination of the bill's exceedingly complex wording. To the dismay of Aldrich and other conservatives, the public learned of the protectionist nature of the proposal. Following this assault, a compromise bill was adopted that moderated the bill's high rates. Taft immediately signed the measure. This act was the first modification of tariff laws since the Dingley Tariff of 1897, which it replaced. President Theodore Roosevelt had simply avoided the issue during his tenure. The act lowered the general tariff rate from 46 to 41 percent while it increased rates on items such as animal hides, iron ore and coal. It lowered 650 tariff items, raised 220 and left 1,150 untouched. Taft came to the act's defense against Democratic and progressive Republican charges that it was a token measure offering precious little relief from the conservative Republicans' protectionist tactics. In fact, the new bill made only very small changes in the law and many reformers had expected Taft to veto it. A disappointed Taft thought it was nevertheless better than the previous tariff. Therefore, he signed it into law. But the president drew the ire of many by commending the act as "the best tariff bill the Republican Party ever passed." Although the Payne-Aldrich Tariff was less protectionist than the McKinley Tariff (1890) and the later Dingley Tariff, it was still protectionist. It remained in effect until the Underwood Tariff of 1913. The struggle over Payne-Aldrich clearly identified the growing fissures within the Republican Party. The progressive or insurgent element was growing away from the G.O.P. Old Guard.

Mann-Elkins Act-The Mann-Elkins Act is passed by Congress. It amends the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 to regulate telephone, telegraph, and cable companies.

Standard Oil Co. v. US-Dissolved 34 companies controlled by John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust as constituting a monopoly in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. While in one sense the case was the high point of the "trust-busting" efforts of two presidents (see also Northern Securities Co. v. United States), in another sense it marked a turn toward a more conservative interpretation of the Sherman Act. Chief Justice Edward Douglass White promulgated the idea that a restraint of trade by a monopolistic business must be "unreasonable" to be illegal under the Sherman Act. White's failure, however, to define a "reasonable" restraint, coupled with the imprecise brevity of the Sherman Act, made subsequent antitrust decisions exceedingly difficult to predict.

Bull Moose Party-Formally  Progressive Party  U.S. dissident political faction that nominated former president Theodore Roosevelt for the presidency in 1912; the formal name and general objectives of the party were revived 12 years later. Opposing the entrenched conservatism of the regular Republican Party, which was controlled by Pres. William Howard Taft, a National Republican Progressive League was organized in 1911 by Sen. Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin. The group became the Progressive Party the following year and ran Theodore Roosevelt for president; it called for revision of the political nominating machinery and an aggressive program of social legislation. The party's popular nickname of Bull Moose was derived from the characteristics of strength and vigour often used by Roosevelt to describe himself. The Bull Moose ticket polled some 25 percent of the popular vote. Thus split, the Republicans lost the election to the Democrats under Woodrow Wilson. The Bull Moose Party evaporated and the Republicans were reunited four years later.

Triple Entente-Britain was also concerned by the growth in the German Navy and in 1904 the two countries signed the Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding). The objective of the alliance was to encourage co-operation against the perceived threat of Germany. Three years later, Russia, who feared the growth in the German Army, joined Britain and France to form the Triple Entente. The Russian government was also concerned about the possibility of Austria-Hungary increasing the size of its empire. It therefore made promises to help Serbia if it was attacked by members of the Triple Alliance.

Triple Entente Resources in 1914

 

Woodrow Wilson-28^th President of the US from 1913-1921. Wilson was president during World War I and was elected as a Democrat after Taft and Roosevelt split the Republican vote during the election of 1912. During his term, the Federal Reserve and Federal Trade Commission were established. He was the second president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He was given the prize for his commitment to world peace and his attempt to create the League of Nations.

Underwood Tariff-(October 3, 1913), act passed by Congress during the administration of Woodrow Wilson that lowered tariffs on hundreds of items that could be produced more cheaply in the United States than abroad. Sponsored by Representative Oscar W. Underwood of Alabama (1862-29), the tariff reduced the rates of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909) by about 10 percent. As the first bill since the Civil War to lower tariff rates, the Underwood Tariff included an income tax to make up for the loss in revenues caused by the lower tariffs.

16^th Amendment-The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Passed July 12, 1909. Ratified February 3, 1913.

Triple Alliance- In 1879 Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to form a Dual Alliance. This became the Triple Alliance when in 1882 it was expanded to include Italy. The three countries agreed to support each other if attacked by either France or Russia. It was renewed at five-yearly intervals. The formation of the Triple Entente in 1907 by Britain, France and Russia, reinforced the need for the alliance.

Triple Alliance Resources in 1914

 

Federal Reserve Act-

Functions of the Federal Reserve System
By 1913, America’s economic growth both at home and abroad required a more flexible, yet better controlled and safer banking system. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 established the Federal Reserve System as the central banking authority of the United States. Under the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and amendments over the years, the Federal Reserve System:

· Conducts America’s monetary policy.

· Supervises and regulates banks and protects consumers’ credit rights.

· Maintains the stability of America’s financial system

· Provides financial services to the U.S. Government, the public, financial institutions, and foreign financial institutions.

The Federal Reserve makes loans to commercial banks and is authorized to issue the Federal Reserve notes that make up America’s entire supply of paper money.

Organization of the Federal Reserve System
Board of Governors
Overseeing the system, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, controls operations of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, several monetary and consumer advisory committees and the thousands of member banks across the U.S. The Board of Governors sets minimum reserve limits (how much capital is on hand) for all member banks, sets the discount rate for the 12 Federal Reserve Banks, and reviews the budgets of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks.

Clayton-Antitrust Act- 1914, Passed by the U.S. Congress as an amendment to clarify and supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. It was drafted by Henry De Lamar Clayton. The act prohibited exclusive sales contracts, local price cutting to freeze out competitors, rebates, interlocking directorates in corporations capitalized at $1 million or more in the same field of business, and intercorporate stock holdings. Labor unions and agricultural cooperatives were excluded from the forbidden combinations in the restraint of trade. The act restricted the use of the injunction against labor, and it legalized peaceful strikes, picketing, and boycotts. It declared that "the labor of a human being is not a commodity or article of commerce." Organized labor was as heartened by the act as it had been dejected by the doctrine of the Danbury Hatters' Case , but subsequent judicial construction weakened the act's labor provisions. The Clayton Antitrust Act was the basis for a great many important and much-publicized suits against large corporations. Later amendments to the act strengthened its provisions against unfair price cutting (1936) and intercorporate stock holdings (1950).

 

Archduke Ferdinand- The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on 28 June 1914, set in train a series of diplomatic events that led inexorably to the outbreak of war in Europe at the end of July 1914. Ferdinand - and his wife Sophie - were killed by Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip while on a formal visit to Sarajevo.  Princip shot Ferdinand at point blank range while the latter was travelling in his car from a town hall reception, having earlier that day already survived one assassination attempt.

World War I-First battle between Germany and her allies against the British, French, and their allies from 1914-1918. US involvement physically will not come until 1914.

Lusitania- In February 1915, the German government declared the existence of a war zone around the British Isles, intended as a warning to neutral ships and passengers. The Germans hoped to avoid the enmity of neutral governments, such as the earlier angry protest that arose from the United States following the sinking of the William P. Frye. The Germans, however, became increasingly convinced that enemy and neutral passenger ships were transporting war matériel. The German Embassy in Washington indicated clearly that they were going to take strong action in such instances and published the following notice in American newspapers:

Travellers intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British Isles; that, in accordance with formal notice given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of Great Britain, or of any of her allies, are liable to destruction in those waters and that travellers sailing in the war zone on ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their own risk. The German notice appeared on May 1, the same date that the Lusitania, a British passenger liner, set sail from New York to Liverpool. On May 7, a German U-boat off the southern coast of Ireland fired a torpedo without warning on the Lusitania, which touched off an internal explosion and sent the ship beneath the waves in less than 20 minutes. Nearly 1,200 people lost their lives, including 128 Americans.

National Defense Act- Provisions were made for 175,000 men for an army and 450,000 men for a National Guard. $500 million was to be used to give the U.S. the most powerful navy in the world.

National Revenue Act-Legislation that created money for the federal government through an income tax on the citizens. The act has been revised several times since it was first instituted in 1916. This act levied heavy taxes on the rich to finance the National Defense Act of 1916. This was the first time that the wealthy were heavily taxed.

Federal Farm Loan Act- The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 established 12 regional Farm Loan Banks to serve members of Farm Loan Associations. Farmers could borrow up to 50% of the value of their land and 20% of the value of their improvements. The biggest benefit of the act was to allow small farmers to be more competitive with the larger businesses. Banks were to provide loans at a competitive rate to small businessmen. The act was signed into law by president Woodrow Wilson.

Sussex Pledge- On March 24, 1916, a German U-boat sunk the Sussex, an unarmed French liner. President Wilson was angered. The Germans issued the Sussex Pledge in response; the Germans promised to spare lives during future U-boat attacks on merchant ships. However, the Germans wanted the U.S. to end the Triple Entente's blockade of Germany.

Urban League- The National Urban League, which has played so pivotal a role in the 20th-Century Freedom Movement, grew out of that spontaneous grassroots movement for freedom and opportunity that came to be called the Black Migrations. When the U.S. Supreme Court declared its approval of segregation in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, the brutal system of economic, social and political oppression the White South quickly adopted rapidly transformed what had been a trickle of African Americans northward into a flood. Those newcomers to the North soon discovered they had not escaped racial discrimination. Excluded from all but menial jobs in the larger society, victimized by poor housing and education, and inexperienced in the ways of urban living, many lived in terrible social and economic conditions. Still, in the degree of difference between South and North lay opportunity, and that African Americans clearly understood. But to capitalize on that opportunity, to successfully adapt to urban life and to reduce the pervasive discrimination they faced, they would need help. That was the reason the Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes was established on September 29, 1910 in New York City. Central to the organization's founding were two remarkable people: Mrs. Ruth Standish Baldwin and Dr. George Edmund Haynes, who would become the Committee's first executive secretary.

"Peace without Victory"- U.S. President Woodrow Wilson addressed the Senate on 22 January 1917 - a little more than two months before the U.S. entered the war against Germany - and appealed for a settlement of the conflict in Europe on the basis of 'peace without victory'. His hopes disappointed he addressed the U.S. Congress on 2 April 1917 to request permission to declare war upon Germany; war was duly declared four days later.

 

Submarine Warfare- On January 31, 1917, the Germans declared that their U-boats would attack merchant ships heading towards Allied ports. Only one American ship would be allowed to go to Portsmouth each week as long as it did not carry contraband.

Zimmermann Telegram- The British intercepted a German letter to Mexico in February of 1917. German foreign secretary Zimmerman wrote that when the U.S. joined the Allies, Mexico could attack the U.S. and recover the land that had been given up in the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo and Texas. This lead to the U.S. declaration of war.

Committee on Public Information/Creel Committee- The Committee on Public Information (CPI), also known as the Creel Committee, organized publicity on behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I. In 1917, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson tapped muckraking journalist George Creel to head the CPI.

Selective Service Act of 1917- Men between the ages of 18 and 45 were required to register for the 1st draft since the Civil War. 2.8 million of the 24 million that registered for the draft were chosen

Espionage Act of 1917- People who helped the enemy, interfered with the draft, or encouraged mutiny in the military would face 20 years in prison and a $10,000 fine. The postmaster general could also refuse to carry mail that might help the enemy.

Sedition Act of 1918- Discouraging the sale of war bonds and criticism of the U.S. government or military became illegal and could be punished by imprisonment or fine. More than 1,500 people were arrested under the act for criticizing the government.

Lever Act- Established in 1914, Cooperative Extension was designed as a partnership of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the land-grant universities, which were authorized by the Federal Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. Legislation in the various States has enabled local governments or organized groups in the Nation's counties to become a third legal partner in this educational endeavor. The congressional charge to Cooperative Extension through the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 is far ranging. Today, this educational system includes professionals in each of America's 1862 land-grant universities (in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, Northern Marianas, American Samoa, Micronesia, and the District of Columbia) and in the Tuskegee Institute and sixteen 1890 land-grant universities.

Trading with the Enemy Act- A United States law forbidding trade with enemies in times of war. The official description of the Act, as part of Public Law, is: "An Act To define, regulate, and punish trading with the enemy, and for other purposes." The law was passed by Congress in 1917, in order to prevent American citizens from doing business with the German Empire, a nation with which the U.S. was at war.

Bolsheviks- Meaning "majority" in Russian, the Bolshevik party was formed after the Second Congress of the The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1903. The Congress as a whole had agreed on the tactics for the coming revolution: the need for a revolution in Russia was clear, and members agreed on the ultimate end: to establish Socialism. The party adopted a stagist theory of societal evolution; that with the yoke of feudalism thrown off, a capitalistic system should be built; i.e. society needed to naturally evolve along a set pattern of progression: from feudalism to capitalism to socialism to communism; one stage needed to be completed before the next was possible. Party leader Vladimir Lenin was able to obtain control of Russia during the revolution of 1918-1920.

Fourteen Points- Wilson's points stated support for open peace covenants, no secret agreements, freedom of the seas, free trade, disarmament, adjustment, of colonial claims, a League of Nations, and the rights of minorities

National War Labor Board- President Wilson charged  the War Labor Conference Board to create a new set of labor policies which would  achieve labor-management cooperation and establish a strong wartime labor workforce.  The War Labor Conference Board obtained eight-hour work days, higher wages, union recognition, equal pay for women who did equal work, and employee grievance procedures for millions of workers.

Overman Act- Wilson fought for and signed the Overman Act in 1918 when conservative Republicans tired to take control of the war effort from him. The act gave him much personal power and established him as the de facto head of the U.S. World War I war machine.

Schenck v. US- In this 1919 case, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sedition Acts were constitutional because the right of free speech was not always absolute. Schenck, who had been arrested for anti-draft leaflets, had challenged the law with the 1st Amendment. It was ruled that criticism that threatened the war effort should be suppressed.

Abrams v. US- In this 1919 case, the conviction of a man for pamphlets that had attacked the government's sending of troops to Russia and called for a strike was overturned. Justices Holmes and Brandeis disagreed with the conviction because they saw no immediate threat to the war effort.

Treaty of Versailles- France was given the Alsace-Lorraine territory and the right to occupy the Saar territory for 15 years. The German Rhineland area would be demilitarized. England and the U.S. would protect France. Importantly, Germany was give full responsibility for the war and was forced to pay $37 billion for the war.

Wright Brothers- On December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, the Wright Flyer became the first powered, heavier-than-air machine to achieve controlled, sustained flight with a pilot aboard.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)/ "Big" Bill Haywood- The Industrial Workers of the World was established in Chicago in 1905 by disgruntled members of the American Federation of Labor who criticized the giant union for its refusal to admit unskilled workers. The driving force behind the I.W.W. was William D. Haywood. He was the leader of the Western Federation of Miners, which had established a reputation for work stoppages in Colorado mines. Assisting Haywood were Eugene V. Debs of the Socialist Party and Daniel De Leon of the Socialist Labor Party. The ranks of I.W.W. were filled primarily by unskilled workers, mostly of the low wage, migratory type. Farm workers, miners and loggers were most heavily represented and they hoped that collective action would bring pay increases and safer working conditions. Unlike other unions of the day, the I.W.W. accepted Jews and the Irish. The I.W.W. came to believe that the solution to their ills lay in the destruction of capitalism, an event that could be hastened by class warfare. They willingly employed strikes and boycotts to achieve their ends, but were opposed to the use of collective bargaining and political actions. In their early years, the I.W.W. opposed the use of sabotage, but some elements would later change their stance on that matter. In 1908, a split occurred within the organization. Debs and his followers advocated political action through an affiliation with the Socialist Party. This view was opposed by Haywood and the majority of the organization, who favored slowdowns, boycotts, strikes and even sabotage. Debs was forced out of the I.W.W. The movement peaked around 1912 when membership approached 100,000 and inroads were made into eastern factories. Nervous state legislators enacted laws designed to thwart the I.W.W.'s effectiveness. The World War I era witnessed widespread public disapproval of the Wobblies. Many in the organization evaded the draft and others were charged with taking money from German agents for staging strikes in sensitive industries. A number of the leaders were arrested under the provisions of the Espionage Act, including Haywood, who managed to escape to Russia; others were convicted and sentenced to long prison terms. The hard line against the I.W.W. continued after the war; the organization lapsed into insignificance by the mid-1920s.

Joe Hill-Born in Sweden, he migrated to the US and in 1910 joined the Industrial Workers of the World - the "Wobblies". Over the next five years he campaigned for many working class causes. He became a popular song-writer with a gift for capturing the meaning of these causes in song. In 1914, during bitter struggles over free speech in Utah, Joe Hill was framed on a murder charge. Despite appeals from President Wilson and the Swedish government, Joe Hill was executed on November 19th 1915. His body was taken to Chicago where over 30,000 people attended his funeral procession and eulogies were read in nine languages.

Henry Ford/assembly line/interchangeable parts-the Ford Motor Company was incorporated in 1903 with Henry Ford as vice-president and chief engineer. The infant company produced only a few cars a day at the Ford factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies. Henry Ford realized his dream of producing an automobile that was reasonably priced, reliable, and efficient with the introduction of the Model T in 1908. This vehicle initiated a new era in personal transportation. It was easy to operate, maintain, and handle on rough roads, immediately becoming a huge success. By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model Ts. To meet the growing demand for the Model T, the company opened a large factory at Highland Park, Michigan, in 1910. Here, Henry Ford combined precision manufacturing, standardized and interchangeable parts, a division of labor, and, in 1913, a continuous moving assembly line. Workers remained in place, adding one component to each automobile as it moved past them on the line. Delivery of parts by conveyor belt to the workers was carefully timed to keep the assembly line moving smoothly and efficiently. The introduction of the moving assembly line revolutionized automobile production by significantly reducing assembly time per vehicle, thus lowering costs. Ford's production of Model Ts made his company the largest automobile manufacturer in the world.

Marcus Garvey/Universal Negro Improvement Association-In 1914 Garvey organized the Universal Negro Improvement Association and its coordinating body, the African Communities League. In 1920 the organization held its first convention in New York. The convention opened with a parade down Harlem's Lenox Avenue. That evening, before a crowd of 25,000, Garvey outlined his plan to build an African nation-state. In New York City his ideas attracted popular support, and thousands enrolled in the UNIA. He began publishing the newspaper The Negro World and toured the United States preaching black nationalism to popular audiences. His efforts were successful, and soon, the association boasted over 1,100 branches in more than 40 countries. Most of these branches were located in the United States, which had become the UNIA's base of operations. There were, however, offices in several Caribbean countries, Cuba having the most. Branches also existed in places such as Panama, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Venezuela, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Namibia and South Africa. He also launched some ambitious business ventures, notably the Black Star Shipping Line. In the years following the organization's first convention, the UNIA began to decline in popularity. With the Black Star Line in serious financial difficulties, Garvey promoted two new business organizations — the African Communities League and the Negro Factories Corporation. He also tried to salvage his colonization scheme by sending a delegation to appeal to the League of Nations for transfer to the UNIA of the African colonies taken from Germany during World War I. Financial betrayal by trusted aides and a host of legal entanglements (based on charges that he had used the U.S. mail to defraud prospective investors) eventually led to Garvey's imprisonment in Atlanta Federal Penitentiary for a five-year term. In 1927 his half-served sentence was commuted, and he was deported to Jamaica by order of President Calvin Coolidge.

Tin Pan Alley-The popular music publishing center of the world from around 1885 to the 1920's. Before that though, all of the important publishers of American music were scattered over much of the country. Some were in New York but others were in Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, Boston and Baltimore. All of these early publishers played important roles in the printing and distribution of sheet music and none had any monopolies on success. Most music publishers also published church music, music instruction books, study pieces and classical items for home and school use.

18^th Amendment-Prohibition

Section 1.

After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Section 2.

The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Section 3.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. Passed December 18, 1917. Ratified January 16, 1919.

 

Prohibition-Called for total abstinence. Its supporters believed that alcohol dependence was addictive behavior. Even well-meaning individuals often lacked the discipline to drink responsibly. A total end to the production and consumption of alcohol, backed by law and the threat of punishment, was the only solution in the minds of these reform advocates.

Volstead Act-Andrew J. Volstead, Republican representative from Minnesota, was the driving force behind the National Prohibition Act (popularly the Volstead Act). This measure, passed over President Woodrow Wilson's veto, served as enabling legislation for the recently ratified 18th Amendment. The measure provided for the following:

· The manufacture, transport, export, sale or possession of alcoholic beverages was prohibited within the United States

· Alcoholic beverages were those that contained more than one-half percent of alcohol

· Federal agents were empowered to investigate and prosecute violators.

Volstead failed to get reelected in 1922, but some authorities have suggested that low farm prices, rather than prohibition legislation, accounted for his defeat. The public adhered to this law fairly faithfully in its early years, but support declined sharply as crime rates increased. In early 1933, in anticipation of the 18th Amendment's repeal, the Volstead Act was revised, which allowed the manufacture and sale of 3.2 percent beer. The act was voided later that year with the adoption of the 21st Amendment.

Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920- Returned the railroads to private hands, advocated a sharp reversal on past policies. The federal government, which had once been ardently anti-monopoly, now encouraged mergers, provided the mergers paired strong lines with weak ones. The ICC, in fact, dictated the merger combinations. In addition, Esch-Cummins empowered the ICC to fix minimum rates and dictate extensions and abandonments of routes. The railroad industry, which had long sought to eliminate unprofitable routes, was now saddled with them

F. Scott Fitzgerald- American short-story writer and novelist, known for his depictions of the Jazz Age (the 1920s). With the glamorous Zelda Sayre (1900-48), Fitzgerald lived a colorful life of parties and money-spending. At the beginning of one of his stories Fitzgerald wrote the rich "are different from you and me". This privileged world he depicted in such novels as THE BEAUTIFUL AND DAMNED (1922) and THE GREAT GATSBY (1925), which is widely considered Fitzgerald's finest novel.

Sinclair Lewis- American novelist, playwright, and social critic who gained popularity with satirical novels. Sinclair Lewis won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1930, the first given to American. His total output includes 22 novels and three plays. Though Lewis criticized at times the American way of living, his basic view of the "American human comedy" was optimistic.

Ernest Hemingway- One of the most famous American novelist, short-story writer and essayist, whose deceptively simple prose style have influenced wide range of writers. Hemingway was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize for Literature.

William Faulkner- American short story writer, novelist, best known for his Yoknapatawpha cycle, a comédie humaine of the American South, which started in 1929 with SARTORIS / FLAGS IN THE DUST and completed with THE MANSION in 1959. Faulkner was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949. Faulkner's style is not very easy - in this he has connections to European literary modernism. His sentences are long and hypnotic, sometimes he withholds important details or refers to people or events that the reader will not learn about until much later.

Eugene O’Neill- One of the greatest American playwrights, restless and bold experimenter, winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1936. Among O'Neill's best-known plays are ANNA CHRISTINE (pub. 1922), DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS (pub.1924), MOURNING BECOMES ELECTRA (pub. 1931), LONG DAY'S JOURNEY INTO NIGHT (pub. 1956), and THE ICEMAN COMETH (prod. 1946). O'Neill's plays range in style from satire to tragedy. They often depict people who have no hope of controlling their destinies.

Harlem Renaissance- Spanning the 1920s to the mid-1930s, the Harlem Renaissance was a literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that kindled a new black cultural identity. Its essence was summed up by critic and teacher Alain Locke in 1926 when he declared that through art, "Negro life is seizing its first chances for group expression and self determination." Harlem became the center of a "spiritual coming of age" in which Locke's "New Negro" transformed "social disillusionment to race pride." Chiefly literary, the Renaissance included the visual arts but excluded jazz, despite its parallel emergence as a black art form.The nucleus of the movement included Jean Toomer, Langston Hughes, Rudolf Fisher, Wallace Thurman, Jessie Redmon Fauset, Nella Larsen, Arna Bontemps, Countee Cullen, and Zora Neale Hurston. An older generation of writers and intellectuals—James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Alain Locke, and Charles S. Johnson—served as mentors. The publishing industry, fueled by whites' fascination with the exotic world of Harlem, sought out and published black writers. With much of the literature focusing on a realistic portrayal of black life, conservative black critics feared that the depiction of ghetto realism would impede the cause of racial equality. The intent of the movement, however, was not political but aesthetic. Any benefit a burgeoning black contribution to literature might have in defraying racial prejudice was secondary to, as Langston Hughes put it, the "expression of our individual dark-skinned selves." The Harlem Renaissance influenced future generations of black writers, but it was largely ignored by the literary establishment after it waned in the 1930s. With the advent of the civil rights movement, it again acquired wider recognition.

KDKA/radio- In 1920, Westinghouse, one of the leading radio manufacturers, had an idea for selling more radios: It would offer programming. Radio began as a one-to-one method of communication, so this was a novel idea. Dr. Frank Conrad was a Pittsburgh area ham operator with lots of connections. He frequently played records over the airwaves for the benefit of his friends. This was just the sort of thing Westinghouse had in mind, and it asked Conrad to help set up a regularly transmitting station in Pittsburgh. On November 2, 1920, station KDKA made the nation's first commercial broadcast (a term coined by Conrad himself). They chose that date because it was election day, and the power of radio was proven when people could hear the results of the Harding-Cox presidential race before they read about it in the newspaper. KDKA was a huge hit, inspiring other companies to take up broadcasting. In four years there were 600 commercial stations around the country. To keep up with the cost of improving equipment and paying for performers, stations turned to advertisers. In August 1922, the first radio ad, for a real estate developer, was aired in New York City. Networks of local stations developed to share programming and became big business. In 1926, RCA (Radio Corporation of America) formed the first national network, called NBC (National Broadcasting Company). Their first nationwide broadcast was the 1927 Rose Bowl football game from Pasadena. The burgeoning industry made the airwaves so jammed and chaotic that the Federal Radio Commission was established in 1927 to assign frequencies to broadcasters.

Warren G. Harding-29^th President of the US from 1921-1923. He was a member of the Republican party and he was the first president to ride to his inauguration in an automobile.

Federal Highway Act- In 1916 Congress passed the first formal highway policy with a regular appropriation of funding to the states.  By this time, the number of automobile registrations in the country had reached 2.3 million, and the auto industry and motorists were heavily lobbying for programs and funds to improve roads.  The Federal-Aid Highway Act, signed by Woodrow Wilson on June 11, 1916, marked the first time the federal government was directly involved in road-building efforts.  Approximately $5 million was appropriated the first year, with the funding escalating in annual steps to total $75 million by 1922.  Funding, managed by the Secretary of Agriculture, was allocated by a formula based on a state's population, land area, and road mileage.  Under this act, the federal government would finance up to 50 percent of the cost of construction, not to exceed $10,000 per mile. The passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1916 discouraged the haphazard construction of roads by counties without state supervision by requiring states to establish a highway department that met the approval of the Office of Public Roads.  The state highway commission had the responsibility for the preparation of plans and specifications and all construction and maintenance, while the federal government held the right to inspect all projects.  This meant that states had to devote financial resources to highway development and utilize skilled engineering for road designs

Sacco and Vanzetti- Nicola Sacco (April 22, 1891 - August 23, 1927) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti June 11, (1888 - August 23, 1927) were two Italian anarchists, who were arrested, tried, and executed in Massachusetts in the 1920s on charges of murder of a shoe factory paymaster named Frederick Parmenter and a security guard named Alesandro Berardelli and of robbery of $15,766.51 from the factory's payroll, although there was much doubt regarding their guilt at the time of their trial. The murders and robbery occurred in April of 1920, with three robbers. Only Sacco and Vanzetti were accused of the crime. Judge Webster Thayer, who heard the case, allegedly described the two as "anarchist bastards". They were electrocuted in Massachusetts in 1927. Sacco was a shoe-maker, Vanzetti a fish seller. In October 1961, ballistic tests showed that the bullet found in Parmenter was fired from Sacco's gun, leading many authorities to conclude that while Vanzetti probably was innocent, Sacco probably was guilty. It was the first period of intense fear of communism in American history, the Red Scare of 1919 to 1920. Neither Sacco nor Vanzetti had any previous criminal record, nor were they communists, but they were known to the authorities as radical militants who had been widely involved in the anarchist movement, labor strikes, political agitation, and anti-war propaganda. Sacco and Vanzetti believed themselves to be victims of social and political prejudice

Emergancy Quota Act- In the United States, the Emergency Quota Act of May 19, 1921 limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from any country to 3% of the number of persons from that country living in the United States in 1910, according to Census figures. That was 357,802 people. Of that number just over half was allocated for northern and western Europeans, and the remainder for eastern and southern Europeans, a 75% reduction from prior years. The act was passed in a time of swelling isolationism following World War I.

Fordney-McCumber Act- One of the first legislative trends of the Sixty-Seventh Congress (1921-23) was the Republican leadership's marshaling of their overwhelming majorities in both the House and Senate to return the nation’s tariff policy to protectionism. The Emergency Tariff Act of 1921 was designed to be only a temporary measure until a more comprehensive measure could be drafted. Major new tariff legislation was guided through Congress by Representative Joseph W. Fordney of Michigan and Senator Porter J. McCumber of North Dakota, and provided for the following:

· raising tariff rates to their highest level to that time, exceeding those provided by an earlier Republican Congress in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909);

· granting to the president broad powers to raise or lower rates by as much as 50 percent on items recommended by the Tariff Commission, a review body created during the Wilson administration;

· introducing the use of the "American selling price"* as a means to increase the protective nature of the tariff without raising rates further.

As a matter of actual practice, the Republican presidents of the 1920s predictably ignored recommendations to lower tariff rates, but regularly offered protection to American producers by raising rates when given the opportunity. The impact of the Fordney-McCumber Act was considerable. Rising tariff barriers in the U.S. made it more difficult for European nations to conduct trade and, resultantly, to pay off their war debts. Further, the protective shield against foreign competition enabled the growth of monopolies in many American industries. Predictably, other nations resented the American policy, protested without result and eventually resorted to raising their own tariff rates against American-made goods, thus creating a significant decline in international trade

National Origins Act- A law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and virtually excluded Asians. The policy stayed in effect until the 1960s.

Calvin Coolidge-30^th President of the US from 1923-1929. He was a Republican and while he was in office the Ku Klux Klan exceeded 4 million members. He became president when Harding died in office.

Scopes "Monkey" Trial- Journalists were looking for a showdown, and they found one in a Dayton, Tennessee courtroom in the summer of 1925. There a jury was to decide the fate of John Scopes, a high school biology teacher charged with illegally teaching the theory of evolution. The guilt or innocence of John Scopes, and even the constitutionality of Tennessee's anti-evolution statute, mattered little. The meaning of the trial emerged through its interpretation as a conflict of social and intellectual values.

The Jazz Singer- Warner Bros.' and director Alan Crosland's The Jazz Singer (1927) is an historic milestone film and cinematic landmark. [Most people associate this film with the advent of sound pictures, although Don Juan (1926), a John Barrymore silent film, also had a synchronized musical score performed by the New York Philharmonic and sound effects using Vitaphone's system.] It should be made clear that this film was not the first sound film, nor the first 'talkie' film or the first movie musical. The wildly successful "photo-dramatic production" was based upon Samson Raphaelson's 1921 short story "The Day of Atonement" (also the basis for Raphaelson's popular 1926 Broadway play of the same name), and adapted for the screen by Alfred A. Cohn.

Charles Lindbergh/Spirit of St. Louis- On May 21, 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh completed the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight in history, flying his Ryan NYP "Spirit of St. Louis" 5,810 kilometers (3,610 miles) between Roosevelt Field on Long Island, New York, and Paris, France, in 33 hours, 30 minutes. With this flight, Lindbergh won the $25,000 prize offered by New York hotel owner Raymond Orteig to the first aviator to fly an aircraft directly across the Atlantic between New York and Paris. When he landed at Le Bourget Field in Paris, Lindbergh became a world hero who would remain in the public eye for decades. The aftermath of the flight was the "Lindbergh boom" in aviation: aircraft industry stocks rose in value and interest in flying skyrocketed. Lindbergh's subsequent U.S. tour in the "Spirit of St. Louis" demonstrated the potential of the airplane as a safe, reliable mode of transportation. Following the U.S. tour, Lindbergh took the aircraft on a goodwill flight to Central and South America, where flags of the countries he visited were painted on the cowling.

Herbert Hoover-30^th President of the US from 1929-1933. During his term as President, Adolph Hitler came into power. He was president during the 1929 Stock Market Crash. He was the first president born west of the Mississippi. While he was in the White House, the Star Spangled Banner was adopted as our national anthem.

Stock Market Crash-In the 1920's many people invested money in the Stock Market. The Stock Market is the how companies raise money to grow larger. It sells shares of stock. A person who buys the share of stock is buying a part of that company. The person holding shares can make profits if the company makes money or loss money if the company does not do well. Many people borrowed money from loan companies to buy stocks. In the early 20's the prices of most stocks went up and up. In the late 20's problems began to show. American companies were making more goods than American buyers wanted. Employees were laid off. As people lost their jobs they were not able to pay their debts. They could not pay back the loan companies. Many were forced to sell their homes and farms. The people who had stock tried to sell it. A panic set it. Soon everyone wanted to sell their stock at the same time. On October 29, 1929 the Stock Market hits its lowest time. Another reason for The Crash of the Stock Market was that banks were investing their money in the Stock Market. When people came to the banks to take out their money the banks had no money to give them. Farmers were also having trouble selling their crops. Before World War I they had been selling their crops overseas. Europeans began to plant crops once the war was over. Many farmers lost money on their farms because of this. Once people lost their jobs and money they had less to spend. Businesses could no longer sell their goods. Creating an even bigger problem.

Hawley-Smoot tariff-1930 Passed by the U.S. Congress; it brought the U.S. tariff to the highest protective level yet in the history of the United States. President Hoover desired a limited upward revision of tariff rates with general increases on farm products and adjustment of a few industrial rates. A congressional joint committee, however, in compromising the differences between a high Senate tariff bill and a higher House tariff bill, arrived at new high rates by generally adopting the increased rates of the Senate on farm products and those of the House on manufactures. Despite wide protest, the tariff act, called the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act because of its joint sponsorship by Representative Willis C. Hawley and Senator Reed Smoot, both Republicans, was signed (June, 1930) by President Hoover. The act brought retaliatory tariff acts from foreign countries, U.S. foreign trade suffered a sharp decline, and the depression intensified.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation-A federal agency created by Congress on February 2, 1932, during the Great Depression to make loans to help stimulate commerce, industry, and agriculture. Backed by President Herbert Hoover, the RFC made loans to banks, insurance companies, industrial corporations, and railroads. During World War II the RFC played an important role in financing war industries. The agency was abolished by Congress in 1956 after lending over $13 billion.

Bonus March-In 1932, in the depths of the Depression, thousands of hungry and disgruntled veterans of WW I marched on Washington, D.C. demanding that Congress pay them the bonus for their military service that had been promised years before. Banding together, unemployed Oregon cannery workers marched with Pennsylvania coal miners and Alabama cotton pickers, as more than 20 thousand "bonus marchers" participated in the biggest rally to date in the nation's capital. And they stayed for weeks, setting up tent cities, living in cardboard shanties, and shaking the nerves of President Hoover.

Home Loan Act-Increasingly dire economic circumstances caused by the Depression in 1932 spurred President Herbert Hoover to press Congress for action. In particular, he wanted to encourage home construction, reduce foreclosures and support the idea of widespread home ownership. The congressional response came in the form of the Federal Home Loan Bank Act that created a five-member Federal Home Loan Bank Board, whose role was to supervise a series of discount banks spread across the country. Initial capitalization of $125 million was provided. The intent of this system was to increase the supply of money available to local institutions that made home loans and to serve them as a reserve credit resource. Existing financial institutions — savings banks, insurance companies, building and loan associations, etc. — could apply for membership in the system. The law appeared to have a beneficial impact. The rate of foreclosures dropped noticeably after the banks began functioning, but the change came too late for thousands of families. This measure also is credited with providing new jobs in the home construction industry. The Federal Home Loan Bank system, like the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, foreshadowed the more activist role of government that would later describe a host of New Deal programs.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt-32^nd President of the US from 1933-1945. He was president during the Great Depression and his programs called the New Deal were helpful in ending the Depression. He was also president during World War II.

New Deal-When President Roosevelt took office in 1933, he feverishly created program after program to give relief, create jobs, and stimulate economic recovery for the U.S. These programs were called "alphabet soup" as well as the "New Deal." The three R’s of relief, recovery, and reform were the aims of the New Deal.

The Hundred Days is the title often given to the first congressional session of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration, March 9 to June 16, 1933. To address the crisis of the worsening depression, the president convened Congress in special session and launched the New Deal with an avalanche of bills designed to stabilize the economy, create jobs, and bolster flagging local relief efforts.

Emergency Banking Act- By the beginning of 1933 the American people were starting to lose faith in their banking system and a significant proportion were withdrawing their money and keeping it at home. When Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected as president, he made it clear that his first concern would be to solve this banking crisis. The day after his inauguration he called Congress into a special session and declared a 4-day bank holiday. On 9th March, 1933, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act which provided for the reopening of the banks as soon as examiners had found them to be financially secure. Within three days, 5,000 banks had been given permission to be re-opened. Later that year Congress passed the 1933 Banking Act. The Federal Reserve Board was given tighter control of the investment practices of banks and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was set up to insure all deposits in banks up to $5,000.

Civilian Conservation Corps- In his first 100 days in office, President Roosevelt approved several measures as part of his "New Deal," including the Emergency Conservation Work Act (ECW), better known as the Civilian Conservation Corps

(CCC). With that action, he brought together the nation's young men and the land in an effort to save them both. Roosevelt proposed to recruit thousands of unemployed young men, enlist them in a peacetime army, and send them to battle the erosion and destruction of the nation's natural resources. More than any other New Deal agency, the CCC is considered to be an extension of Roosevelt's personal philosophy. The speed with which the plan moved through proposal, authorization, implementation, and operation was certainly a miracle of cooperation among all the agencies and branches of the federal government. From FDR's inauguration on March 4, 1933, to the induction of the first CCC enrollee, only 37 days had elapsed.

Agricultural Adjustment Act- When Franklin D. Roosevelt was inaugurated president in 1933, he called Congress into special session to introduce a record number of legislative proposals under what he dubbed the New Deal. One of the first to be introduced and enacted was the Agricultural Adjustment Act. The intent of the AAA was to restore the purchasing power of American farmers to pre-World War I levels. The money to pay the farmers for cutting back production by about 30 percent was raised by a tax on companies that bought farm products and processed them into food and clothing. The AAA evened the balance of supply and demand for farm commodities so that prices would support a decent purchasing power for farmers. This concept was known as "parity." AAA controlled the supply of seven "basic crops" — corn, wheat, cotton, rice, peanuts, tobacco, and milk — by offering payments to farmers in return for farmers not planting those crops. The AAA also became involved in assisting farmers ruined by the advent of the Dust Bowl in 1934. In 1936 the Supreme Court declared the AAA unconstitutional. The majority of the judges ruled that it was illegal to levy a tax on one group, the processors, in order to pay it to another, the farmers. Further legislation by Congress restored some of the act's provisions, encouraging conservation, maintaining balanced prices, and establishing food reserves for periods of shortages.

Federal Emergency Relief Act-(May 12, 1933), an act that created the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Part of the New Deal, the FERA provided relief for the needy and unemployed by giving direct aid to the states. It received an initial fund of $500 million from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation for crisis relief. When Congress passed the Social Security Act of 1935, the work of the agency was completed.

Tennessee Valley Act-This act of May 18, 1933, created the Tennessee Valley Authority to oversee the construction of dams to control flooding, improve navigation, and create cheap electric power in the Tennessee Valley basin. President Roosevelt signed the Tennessee Valley Authority Act on May 18, 1933, creating the TVA as a Federal corporation. The new agency was asked to tackle important problems facing the valley, such as flooding, providing electricity to homes and businesses, and replanting forests. Other TVA responsibilities written in the act included improving travel on the Tennessee River and helping develop the regios business and farming. The establishment of the TVA marked the first time that an agency was directed to address the total resource development needs of a major region. TVA was challenged to take oin one unified development efforthe problems presented by devastating floods, badly eroded lands, a deficient economy, and a steady out-migration. The most dramatic change in Valley life came from the electricity generated by TVA dams. Electric lights and modern appliances made life easier and farms more productive. Electricity also drew industries to the region, providing desperately needed jobs.

Home Owners Refinancing Act-(June 13), Created to refinance non-farm home mortgages.

Farm Credit Act-(1933), a government agency that supervises and coordinates the cooperative Farm Credit System. Formed under the Farm Credit Act of 1933 as part of the New Deal, the FCA gave aid to struggling farmers by coordinating loans during the Great Depression. The FCA continues to provide credit to farmers, ranchers, and agricultural organizations.

Glass-Stegall Banking Act-(June 16, 1933), law that established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to insure bank deposits up to $5,000 (the amount was changed several times and is now $100,000). Also known as the Banking Act of 1933, the act prohibited the affiliation of banks with companies selling securities. (An earlier Glass-Steagall Act, February 27, 1932, addressed credit expansion in the United States.)

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation-An agency of the government that insures deposit accounts in commercial banks. The FDIC was created by the Banking Act of 1933 in response to the Great Depression, when many banks failed. All national banks are required to belong to the FDIC and most state banks are volunteer members. The FDIC functioned well until the late 1980s when a burgeoning series of bank failures led to a crisis requiring that billions of tax dollars be pumped into the FDIC.

National Industrial Act-(June 16, 1933), New Deal legislation creating the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) and the National Recovery Administration (NRA). FERA, later renamed the Public Works Administration (PWA), helped create jobs in public works. The NRA required business and labor to accept fair competition codes that regulated wages, hours, working conditions, and collective bargaining. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. U.S. (1935), the U.S. Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional because its assignment of lawmaking power to the NRA violated the Constitution's allotment of such powers to Congress.

21^st Amendment-

Section 1.

The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2.

The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3.

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. Passed February 20, 1933. Ratified December 5, 1933.

Frazier-Lemke Act-This act restricted the ability of banks to dispossess farmers in times of distress. Originally effective until 1938, the act was renewed four times until 1947, when it expired

Federal Housing Authority-The FHA was established in 1934 to improve housing standards and conditions and to provide an adequate home financing system through insurance of mortgages. Families that would otherwise be excluded from the housing market were finally able to buy the homes of their dreams.

Gold Reserve Act-All persons are hereby required to deliver on or before May 1, 1933, to a Federal Reserve bank or a branch or agency thereof or to any member bank of the Federal Reserve System all gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates now owned by them or coming into their ownership on or before April 28, 1933

Securities and Exchange Commission-Congress passed the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. These laws were designed to restore investor confidence in our capital markets by providing more structure and government oversight. The main purposes of these laws can be reduced to two common-sense notions:

 Companies publicly offering securities for investment dollars must tell the public the truth about their businesses, the securities they are selling, and the risks involved in investing.

· People who sell and trade securities – brokers, dealers, and exchanges – must treat investors fairly and honestly, putting investors' interests first.

Monitoring the securities industry requires a highly coordinated effort. Congress established the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1934 to enforce the newly-passed securities laws, to promote stability in the markets and, most importantly, to protect investors.

 

Silver Purchase Act-(June 19, 1934), act that established the nationalization of domestic silver holdings until the price reached a predetermined level. The Department of the Treasury was to issue silver certificates against all silver purchases. The purpose was to increase the price of silver following the depression by inflating the currency, but the act failed to do so.

Works Progress Administration-On May 6, 1935, the Works Progress Administration was established under the direction of long-time FDR aide Harry Hopkins. The WPA philosophy was to put the unemployed back to work in jobs which would serve the public good and conserve the skills and the self-esteem of workers throughout the U.S.

 

Argued:	May 2, 1935
Decided:	May 27, 1935
Facts of the Case Section 3 of the National Industrial Recovery Act empowered the President to implement industrial codes to regulate weekly employment hours, wages, and minimum ages of employees. The codes had standing as penal statutes.
Question Presented Did Congress unconstitutionally delegate legislative power to the President?
Conclusion The Court held that Section 3 was "without precedent" and violated the Constitution. The law did not establish rules or standards to evaluate industrial activity. In other words, it did not make codes, but simply empowered the President to do so. A unanimous Court found this to be an unconstitutional delegation of legislative authority.

Wagner Act/National Labor Relations Act-The National Labor Relations Act of the Wagner Act of 1935 was created by Congress to protect workers’ right to unionization.  The National Labor Relations Board was created to enforce the National Labor Relations Act.  The NLRB conducts secret-ballot elections to determine whether employees want union representation and also investigates unfair labor practices by employers and unions (Smith, 1998).  The act guarantees un-supervised employees the right to self-organize, choose their own representatives, and bargain collectively or they may choose not to do any of these things.

Social Security Act-(August 14, 1935), law providing for a system of old-age insurance for workers at age sixty-five and survivor benefits for children or spouses of insured workers who die before age sixty-five. The act was a central element in the New Deal program of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Social Security Administration, part of the Department of Health and Human Services, administers the system. Money for the pensions is collected from a Social Security tax taken out of workers' and employers' earnings. The act also provided that money be returned to the states so they could set up systems of unemployment insurance.

National Housing Act-Wagner-Steagle Housing Act of 1937 which established the United States Housing Administration (Authority). The act required that the construction of new public housing units be matched by the removal of an equal number of substandard dwellings from the local housing supply. This meant that, in deference to the real estate and home building interests, the federal housing program would increase the quality of housing without increasing the quantity. Maximum incomes for people residing in public housing were set at very low levels to address the concerns of real estate interests who feared the new housing would compete with the private sector. Finally, and most importantly, the federal government, in keeping with the rulings of the courts, would provide the money for housing, but the initiative for the housing and the ownership and operation of the housing would be the responsibility of a local entity known as a public housing authority, appointed by local elected officials.

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)-The Congress of Industrial Organizations (cio) was founded in response to the failure of the American Federation of Labor (afl) to organize unskilled workers in mass production industries. At the 1934 afl convention, a move to organize these workers lost when only 30 percent of the members voted for the measure. After failing again in 1935, John L. Lewis, head of the United Mine Workers, Sidney Hillman, leader of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, David Dubinsky of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, and representatives of the Textile Workers and the Typographers unions formed the Committee for Industrial Organization. It was expelled from the afl in 1936 and became the cio in 1938. The National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, section 7A, which gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively, provided an impetus to unionization in the 1930s. The cio's major organizing tactic was the sit-down strike, which was quite successful: cio membership reached 2,654,000 by 1940. John L. Lewis was the first president of the cio. Responding to the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947 and the election of a Republican president in 1952, the afl and the cio merged in 1955.

Fair Labor Standards Act-The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, as amended (referred to as "the Act" or "FLSA"), is published in law in sections 201-219 of title 29, United States Code. The Act provides for minimum standards for both wages and overtime entitlement, and spells out administrative procedures by which covered worktime must be compensated. Included in the Act are provisions related to child labor, equal pay, and portal-to-portal activities. In addition, the Act exempts specified employees or groups of employees from the application of certain of its provisions

Washington Naval Conference-More formally known as the International Conference on Naval Limitation, this disarmament effort was occasioned by the hugely expensive naval construction rivalry that existed among Britain, Japan and the United States. Senator William E. Borah, Republican of Idaho, took the lead on this matter and urged that the major Allied nations from the recent war gather in an effort to slow the arms race. The proposal was not met with initial enthusiasm by the Harding administration, but it became a political imperative when it was portrayed as a Republican alternative to League of Nations’ peace efforts. In the summer of 1921, Harding extended invitations and expanded the agenda beyond arms control to include discussion of issues in the Pacific and Far East. The formal opening of the conference occurred on Armistice Day 1921. The major naval powers of Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States were in attendance as well as other nations with concerns about territories in the Pacific — Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal and China — who were not parties to the disarmament discussions. Soviet Russia was not invited, nor were the defeated Central Powers. The American delegation was led by Charles Evans Hughes, the secretary of state, and included Elihu Root, Henry Cabot Lodge and Oscar Underwood, the Democratic minority leader in the Senate. In the initial session, Hughes shocked the delegates by going beyond platitudes and offering a detailed plan for arms reduction. Labeled by some as one of the most dramatic moments in American diplomatic history, Hughes called for the scrapping of nearly two million tons of warships and a lengthy "holiday" on the construction of new ships. He was widely hailed in the press as a savior, but leaders of the other Allied governments were quietly skeptical. Over the following weeks, a series of agreements was concluded:

· Four-Power Pact (December 13, 1921). The major Allied powers — Britain, France, Japan and the United States — agreed to submit disputes among themselves over Pacific issues to a conference for resolution.

· Four-Power Pact (December 13, 1921). The same Allied powers pledged mutual respect for the possessions and mandates of other signatories in the Pacific.

· Shantung Treaty (February 4, 1922). The territory of Kiaochow in Shantung (Shandong) province was returned by Japan to China. The area had been leased by Germany in 1898, but was seized by Japan at the outbreak of war in 1914.

· Nine-Power Treaty (February 6, 1922). The signatories — the Big Four, plus Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal and China — endorsed the Open Door Policy and pledged mutual respect for Chinese territorial integrity and independence.

· Nine-Power Treaty (February 6, 1922). The same Allied powers agreed to extend Chinese control over trade matters within Chinese borders.

· Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty (February 6, 1922). This agreement implemented the sweeping proposals of Hughes in somewhat modified terms. The leading naval powers — Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States — pledged adherence to limitations on the tonnage of capital ships and accepted a moratorium on new naval construction.

· Five-Power supplemental treaty. The major Allied naval powers agreed on a series of rules for the use of submarines in future warfare and also outlawed the use of poisonous gases as a military weapon.

· Six-Power Pact. The Big Five Nations plus China agreed to the allocation among themselves of former German cable routes in the Pacific.

· Yap Island agreement. The United States and Japan agreed on provisions for U.S. use of the Pacific island as a distribution point for the transpacific cable.

In the following months, the U.S. Senate ratified all of the treaties from the Washington Conference. However, a reservation was attached to the Four-Power Pact stating that no agreement had been approved that required the "commitment of armed force" by the United States.

Adolph Hitler-Adolf Hitler, a charismatic, Austrian-born demagogue, rose to power in Germany during the 1920s and early 1930s at a time of social, political, and economic upheaval. Failing to take power by force in 1923, he eventually won power by democratic means. Once in power, he eliminated all opposition and launched an ambitious program of world domination and elimination of the Jews, paralleling ideas he advanced in his book, Mein Kampf. His "1,000 Year Reich" barely lasted 12 years and he died a broken and defeated man.

Benito Mussolini-Benito Mussolini took advantage of political, social, and economic crisis in Italy in order to put himself in the position of unchallenged authority.  It is apparent that, being a fascist, Mussolini needed complete control of everything and wanted to be the ultimate dictator.  This need and his aggressive nationalism made him hungry to get what he wanted: more strength and power. Mussolini seized control in 1922.

Tanaka Memorial-The Tanaka Memorial is said to be a purloined copy of a report made by Japan's Prime Minister Giichi Tanaka to Emperor Hirohito on July 25, 1927. Some accounts say that Chinese clerks and servants employed by Japanese officials in China stole or made a copy of the whole report, or that scraps of papers and bits and pieces of the report were assembled by Chinese spies. The Tanaka Memorial was published by the Chinese as Japan's master plan for world conquest, a plan that stated that war with the United States of America was inevitable.

Kellogg-Briand Pact-agreement, signed Aug. 27, 1928, condemning "recourse to war for the solution of international controversies." It is more properly known as the Pact of Paris. In June, 1927, Aristide Briand, foreign minister of France, proposed to the U.S. government a treaty outlawing war between the two countries. Frank B. Kellogg, the U.S. Secretary of State, returned a proposal for a general pact against war, and after prolonged negotiations the Pact of Paris was signed by 15 nations—Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, India, the Irish Free State, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, South Africa, and the United States. The contracting parties agreed that settlement of all conflicts, no matter of what origin or nature, that might arise among them should be sought only by pacific means and that war was to be renounced as an instrument of national policy. Although 62 nations ultimately ratified the pact, its effectiveness was vitiated by its failure to provide measures of enforcement. The Kellogg-Briand Pact was given an unenthusiastic reception by many countries. The U.S. Senate, ratifying the treaty with only one dissenting vote, still insisted that there must be no curtailment of America's right of self-defense and that the United States was not compelled to take action against countries that broke the treaty.

Good Neighbor Policy-The Good Neighbor policy refers to the Hoover-Roosevelt policy of refraining from armed intervention in Latin America. Franklin D. Roosevelt is usually credited with setting the policy, but President Herbert Hoover coined the phrase and put the policy into practice.When Hoover was elected in 1928, U.S. relations with Latin America were at a low point. At the Sixth Pan-American Conference in Havana that year, Latin Americans angrily criticized the Coolidge administration's armed interventions in Haiti and Nicaragua. To mend relations, Hoover after the elections immediately set out on a goodwill trip to Latin American capitals. In Honduras he announced, "We have a desire to maintain not only the cordial relations of governments with each other but also the relations of good neighbors." Relations further improved with other Hoover administration policies. In the Clark Memorandum of 1930, the State Department repudiated Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Corollary had declared that only the United States could enforce collections of debts owed to foreigners by countries in the Western Hemisphere. (The Clark Memorandum, however, did not repudiate the right to intervention itself.) The Hoover administration's withdrawal of troops from Nicaragua and a planned withdrawal from Haiti also helped ease tensions between Latin America and the United States. When Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency, he adopted the Good Neighbor rhetoric, but his intentions were unclear at first. In 1933 his administration pointedly refrained from sending troops to shore up the conservative Machado regime in Cuba. But when the leftist government of Ramón Grau San Martín took power, Washington helped topple it by stationing warships offshore and withholding recognition. The Good Neighbor policy came into its own, however, in a series of measures taken during the thirties. Secretary of State Cordell Hull, in a surprise move, voted for a nonintervention resolution at the Seventh Pan-American Conference held at Montevideo in December 1933. Hull's low-tariff policy also eased relations with countries whose exports had been hurt by the protective Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930. In 1934 the Platt Amendment, which gave the United States the right to intervene in Cuba, was repealed, and in 1936 the Panama Canal Treaty was renegotiated. The United States' restraint when Mexico nationalized its oil industry in 1938 also helped improve relations. As World War II approached, the United States found itself competing for influence with Germany in Latin America. Just before and during the war the administration went to great lengths to ensure Latin American cooperation in the war effort, both to keep strategic raw materials flowing and to deny the Axis any base of operation against the Panama Canal or the United States itself. With the notable exception of Argentina, the United States was successful—the Good Neighbor policy had borne fruit.

Trade Agreements Act of 1934-International commercial treaty in which two or more nations grant equally advantageous trade concessions to each other. It usually refers to treaties dealing with tariffs. For example, one nation may grant another a special schedule of tariff concessions in return for equivalent advantages. Originally reciprocity agreements involved bilateral tariff reductions that were not to be extended to third countries.

Neutrality Act-The four Neutrality Acts of the late 1930s represented an effort to keep the United States out of "foreign" wars, an effort resulting in part from widespread questioning of the reasons for and results of America's participation in World War I. These laws, unlike U.S. policy in 1916-1917, limited the exercise of neutral rights as a way of protecting that neutrality. A characteristic of the acts was that they made no distinction between aggressor and victim; both sides were simply characterized as "belligerents." The first Neutrality Act (August 1935), passed after Italy's attack on Ethiopia in May 1935, empowered the president, on finding a state of war, to declare an embargo on arms shipments to the belligerents and to announce that U.S. citizens traveling on belligerents' ships did so at their own risk. This act set no limits, however, on trade in materials useful for war, such as copper, steel, and oil. The 1935 act was replaced by the Neutrality Act of 1936 (February 29), which added a prohibition on extending loans or credits to belligerents. The Spanish civil war, which broke out in July 1936, was not covered by existing neutrality legislation, which applied only to wars between nations; accordingly, Congress by joint resolution on January 6, 1937, forbade supplying arms to either side. When the 1936 law expired, the Neutrality Act of 1937 (May 1) included civil wars, empowered the president to add strategic materials to the embargo list, and made travel by U.S. citizens on belligerents' ships unlawful. The practical difficulties of maintaining neutrality became clear, however, when Japan's incursions into China led to the outbreak of fighting there on July 7, 1937. Since invoking the Neutrality Act would penalize China, which was more dependent than Japan on American assistance, President Franklin D. Roosevelt chose not to identify the fighting as a state of war. The Neutrality Act of 1939 (November 4) contained a "cash and carry" formula devised by Bernard M. Baruch. Belligerents were again permitted to buy American arms and strategic materials, but they had to pay cash and to transport the goods in their own ships. This provision, it was believed, would prevent the United States from being drawn into war either by holding debt in some belligerent countries or by violating blockades while transporting supplies. In addition, the president was empowered to designate a "combat zone" in time of war, through which American citizens and ships were forbidden to travel. On November 17, 1941, after repeated confrontations with German submarines in the North Atlantic and the torpedoing of the destroyer Reuben James, Congress amended the act to permit merchant vessels to arm themselves and to carry cargoes to belligerent ports. But three weeks later, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and the United States was at war.

Axis Alliance-The Tripartite Pact of September 27, 1940, allied Germany, Italy, and Japan and became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, or Axis alliance.

Munich Agreement-In September 1938 British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, met German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in Munich to settle the future of the Sudetenland. Hitler's demand that this Czechoslovak land be ceded to Germany was agreed because it was settled by Germans and would therefore be in line with the principle of national self-determination. Since coming to power in January 1933, Hitler had systematically sought to revise the terms of the Treaty of Versailles which had deprived Germany of territory, and imposed disarmament and swingeing reparations. Agreeing to Hitler's demands became known as Appeasement. At the time Chamberlain was accused of weakness in not standing up to Hitler. When the government archives were opened it became apparent that Britain's run down defence capability left few alternatives. Later historians have concluded that, while Britain had few alternatives, Chamberlain had misread Hitler's intentions.

Nazi-Soviet Pact-The Government of the German Reich and The Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, directed by the wish to strengthen the cause of peace between Germany and the USSR . . . have reached the following agreement:

Article 1: The two contracting parties undertake to refrain from any act of violence, and aggressive action, or any attack against one another, whether individually or jointly with other powers.

Article 2: In case of the contracting parties should become the object of warlike acts on the part of a third party, the other contracting party will no longer support that third power in any form.

Article 4: Neither of the two contracting parties will participate in any grouping of powers which is indirectly or directly aimed against the other party.

Article 5: Should disputes or conflicts arise between the contracting parties regarding questions of any kind whatsoever, the two parties would clear away these disputes or conflicts solely by means of friendly exchanges of views or if necessary by arbitrary commissions.

Secret Additional Protocol: On the occasion of the signature of the Non-Aggression Treaty between the German Reich and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the undersigned . . . parties discussed in strictly confidential conversations the question of the delimitation of their respective spheres of interest in Eastern Europe. These conversations led to the following result:

1. In the event of a territorial and political transformation in the territories belonging to the Baltic States (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), the northern frontier of Lithuania shall represent the frontier of the spheres of interest both of Germany and the USSR. . . .

2. In the event of a territorial and political transformation of the territories belonging to the Polish State, the spheres of interest of both Germany and the USSR shall be bounded approximately by the line of the rivers Narev, Vistula, and San.

3. This Protocol will be treated by both parties as strictly secret.

Selective Training and Service Act-First adopted peacetime conscription in the United States. The act provided that not more than 900,000 men were to be in training at any one time, and it limited service to 12 months—later (1941) extended to 18 months. After the United States entered World War II, a new selective service act made men between 18 and 45 liable for military service and required all men between 18 and 65 to register. The terminal point of service was extended to six months after the war. From 1940 until 1947 — when the wartime selective service act expired after extensions by Congress— over 10,000,000 men were inducted. A new selective service act was passed in 1948 that required all men between 18 and 26 register and that made men from 19 to 26 liable for induction for 21 months' service, which would be followed by 5 years of reserve duty.

Tripartite Pact-This pact was signed by the Axis powers in the 1940s; it stated that should one of the signatories, consisting of Japan, Germany, and Italy, be aggressed upon by the United States, the other two were obliged to send help. This was most beneficial for Japan, as they had the more to gain by drawing the United States into a European war than Germany and Italy did a Pacific one. 

Lend-Lease Act-The Lend-Lease Act of March 11, 1941, was the principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during World War II. The act authorized the president to transfer arms or any other defense materials for which Congress appropriated money to "the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States." Britain, the Soviet Union, China, Brazil, and many other countries received weapons under this law. By allowing the president to transfer war matériel to a beleaguered Britain—and without payment as required by the Neutrality Act of 1939—the act enabled the British to keep fighting until events led America into the conflict. It also skirted the thorny problems of war debts that had followed World War I.Lend-Lease brought the United States one step closer to entry into the war. Isolationists, such as Republican senator Robert Taft, opposed it. Taft correctly noted that the bill would "give the President power to carry on a kind of undeclared war all over the world, in which America would do everything except actually put soldiers in the front-line trenches where the fighting is."

Atlantic Charter-President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain issued the Atlantic Charter after a conference aboard uss Augusta at Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, on August 9, 1941. Originally designed to rally support for the war effort, it later became a blueprint for the postwar world. The charter announced that the signatories sought no additional national territory and recognized the right of all peoples to choose their own form of government and to approve any territorial changes that might affect them. It also guaranteed all nations the right to trade and navigate anywhere in the world and called for international cooperation to promote improved labor standards, economic advancement, and social security. The object was to make sure that "all the men in all the lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want." Finally, Churchill and Roosevelt called for the disarmament of the Axis powers, pending the establishment of a "permanent system of general security," a system later codified by the United Nations Charter.

U-Boats-Unterseeboot or German submarine

The U-boat campaign can be broken into two distinct phases. The first was aimed at allied surface warships; The second, and ultimately more successful, was targeted towards allied shipping - using the U-boat as a tool to enforce an embargo. Early in the war efforts were almost exclusively concentrated towards surface warships with the results looking promising.

Hideki Tojo/Japan-Hideki Tojo was Prime Minister of Japan when the attack on Pearl Harbour took place plunging the Far East into a war which was to end with the destruction of Hiroshima in August 1945. For his part in leading Japan into World War Two, Tojo was executed as a war criminal.

Pearl Harbor-The 7 December 1941 Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor was one of the great defining moments in history. A single carefully-planned and well-executed stroke removed the United States Navy's battleship force as a possible threat to the Japanese Empire's southward expansion. America, unprepared and now considerably weakened, was abruptly brought into the Second World War as a full combatant.

War Powers Act-(November 7, 1973), law prescribing the balance of power between the president and Congress in declaring war. The act requires the president to inform Congress within forty-eight hours of military action in a hostile area. Forces must be removed within sixty to ninety days unless Congress approves of the action or declares war. The resolution, prompted by the aggressive actions of Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard M. Nixon without congressional approval or a declaration of war during the Vietnam War, was passed over Nixon's veto.

Japanese-American Internment-During World War II, approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were evacuated from their homes and businesses to internment camps scattered throughout the interior of the United States. Executive Order 9066, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in February of 1942, ordered that all Japanese Americans be evacuated from the West Coast. This order was carried out quickly, as Japanese Americans from all of California, Arizona, Oregon and Washington, sold what they could not carry and boarded trains to 16 assembly centers. There they would live in temporary housing for much of the spring and summer of 1942 until permanent camps were built. These permanent internment camps were constructed in rural areas where life was made more difficult by the harsh temperatures and desert and swamp-like environments. The barracks where the Japanese Americans would have to live were hastily built without consideration for the brutal climate or the need for privacy. In these conditions, surrounded by barbed wire and armed guards, the Japanese Americans would live until the end of the war approximately 3 years later.

National War Labor Board-The National War Labor Board was established late in 1941 (formally, by executive order in January of 1942) to administer wage control in national industries such as automobiles, shipping, railways, airlines, telegraph lines, and mines. It ceased operating in 1946, and thereafter labor disputes were handled by the National Labor Relations Board, originally set up in 1934.

D-Day-The Battle of Normandy was fought during World War II in the summer of 1944, between the Allied nations and German forces occupying Western Europe. More than 60 years later, the Normandy Invasion, or D-Day, remains the largest seaborne invasion in history, involving nearly three million troops crossing the English Channel from England to Normandy in occupied France. Twelve Allied nations provided fighting units that participated in the invasion, including Australia, Canada, Belgium, France, Czechoslovakia, Greece, New Zealand, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Operation Overlord was the codename for the Allied invasion of northwest Europe. The assault phase, or the establishment of a secure foothold, was known as Operation Neptune. Operation Neptune began on D-Day (June 1, 1944) and ended on June 30, when the Allies had established a firm foothold in Normandy. Operation Overlord also began on D-Day, and continued until Allied forces crossed the River Seine on August 19. The battle began months before the invasion, when Allied bombers began to pound the Normandy coast and farther south, to destroy transportation links, and disrupt the German army's build-up of their military strength. More than 300 planes dropped 13,000 bombs over Normandy in advance of the invasion. Six parachute regiments, with more than 13,000 men, also went ahead to cut railroad lines, blow up bridges, and seize landing fields. Gliders also brough in men, light artillery, jeeps, and small tanks. There has been some confusion regarding the meaning of the "D" in D-Day. The most likely explanation is offered by the U.S. Army in their published manuals. The Army began to use the codes "H-hour" and "D-Day" during World War I, to indicate the time or date of an operation’s beginning. So the "D" may simply refer

to the "day" of invasion

Conferences: Casablanca, Teheran, Yalta, Potsdam-

Yalta-The conference at Yalta held in the Crimea on February 4-11, 1945 brought together the Big Three Allied leaders. During this conference, Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt discussed Europe’s postwar reorganization. The main purpose of Yalta was the re-establishment of the nations conquered and destroyed by Germany. Organizing the occupation of Germany was one of the top priorities. The Yalta Conference agreed to divide Germany into zones controlled by each of the three nations present. With the immense size of Stalin's army, Russia would take Berlin and control the eastern half of Germany upon its surrender. Great Britain suggested France as one of the occupiers. Initially, Stalin resisted but eventually accepted this idea. Poland was given back its independence and given its own national election in order to create a new, independent government. Yugoslavia was given its own government as well which consisted of mostly old members under a new system. In both cases, Nazi and Fascist leaders were specifically prohibited

Casablanca-From January 14 to January 24, 1943, the first war conference between the Allied Powers, was held in Casablanca, Morocco. The purpose of the conference was relatively vague. It took steps toward planning the allied strategy and the end of the war. Initially, it was to be a Big Three meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. It became a Big Two meeting when Stalin declined the invitation. With his country besieged by both Hitler and the harsh winter, Stalin didn't feel that he could leave. Even without Stalin, or perhaps due to his absence, the Casablanca Conference was successful. It set basis and direction for the rest of the war. And most importantly, it established terms of unconditional surrender.

Teheran-In November, 1943, Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt met together in Teheran, Iran, to discuss military strategy and post-war Europe. Ever since the Soviet Union had entered the war, Stalin had been demanding that the Allies open-up a second front in Europe. Churchill and Roosevelt argued that any attempt to land troops in Western Europe would result in heavy casualties. Until the Soviet's victory at Stalingrad in January, 1943, Stalin had feared that without a second front, Germany would defeat them.

Potsdam-On 16 July 1945, the "Big Three" leaders met at Potsdam, Germany, near Berlin. In this, the last of the World War II heads of state conferences, President Truman, Soviet Premier Stalin and British Prime Ministers Churchill and Atlee discussed post-war arrangements in Europe, frequently without agreement. Future moves in the war against Japan were also covered. The meeting concluded early in the morning of 2 August.

Atomic Bomb-On August 2, 1939, just before the beginning of World War II, Albert Einstein wrote to then President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Einstein and several other scientists told Roosevelt of efforts in Nazi Germany to purify uranium-235, which could be used to build an atomic bomb. It was shortly thereafter that the United States Government began the serious undertaking known then only as "The Manhattan Project." Simply put, the Manhattan Project was committed to expediting research that would produce a viable atomic bomb.

Los Alamos, New Mexico-Place where the Manhattan Project took place.

Harry S. Truman-33^rd President of the US from 1945-1953. He presided over the Korean War. He approved the creation of NATO. He made the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which led to the end of World War II.

The atomic bomb named "Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima by the Enola Gay, a Boeing B-29 bomber, at 8:15 in the morning of August 6, 1945. It exploded about two thousand feet above the city with a blast equivalent to 13 thousand tons of TNT, killing an estimated 80,000 civilians outright.

 

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Nagasaki- On the morning of August 9, 1945, the crew of the American B-29 Superfortress "Bockscar," flown by Major Charles W. Sweeney and carrying the nuclear bomb nicknamed "Fat Man," found their primary target, Kokura, to be obscured by cloud. After three runs over the city and having fuel running low due to a fuel-transfer problem, they headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Some 75,000 of Nagasaki's 240,000 residents were killed, followed by the death of at least as many from resulting sickness and injury. However another report issues a different residential number, speaking of Nagasaki's population which dropped in one split-second from 422,000 to 383,000, thus 39,000 were killed, over 25,000 were injured. If taken into account those who died from radioactive materials causing cancer, the total number of residents killed is believed to be at least 100,000.

 

Argued:	October 11, 1944
Decided:	December 18, 1944
Facts of the Case During World War II, Presidential Executive Order 9066 and congressional statutes gave the military authority to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from areas deemed critical to national defense and potentially vulnerable to espionage. Korematsu remained in San Leandro, California and violated Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34 of the U.S. Army.
Question Presented Did the President and Congress go beyond their war powers by implementing exclusion and restricting the rights of Americans of Japanese descent?
Conclusion The Court sided with the government and held that the need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights. Justice Black argued that compulsory exclusion, though constitutionally suspect, is justified during circumstances of "emergency and peril."

Servicemen’s Readjustment Act- The bill unanimously passed both chambers of Congress in the spring of 1944. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed it into law on June 22, 1944, just days after the D-day invasion of Normandy. American Legion publicist Jack Cejnar called it "the GI Bill of Rights," as it offered Federal aid to help veterans adjust to civilian life in the areas of hospitalization, purchase of homes and businesses, and especially, education. This act provided tuition, subsistence, books and supplies, equipment, and counseling services for veterans to continue their education in school or college. Within the following 7 years, approximately 8 million veterans received educational benefits. Under the act, approximately 2,300,000 attended colleges and universities, 3,500,000 received school training, and 3,400,000 received on-the-job training. The number of degrees awarded by U.S. colleges and universities more than doubled between 1940 and 1950, and the percentage of Americans with bachelor degrees, or advanced degrees, rose from 4.6 percent in 1945 to 25 percent a half-century later.

Bretton Woods/World Bank-The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, in Romance languages: BIRD), better known as the World Bank, came into existence on December 27, 1945 following international ratification of the agreements reached at the Bretton Woods Conference of July 1 - July 22, 1944. The World Bank is an international organization that provides long term loans, grants, and technical assistance, to help developing countries implement their poverty reduction strategies. As such, World Bank financing can be used in many different areas, from reform of health and education sector, to environmental and infrastructure projects, including dams, roads, and national parks. Commencing operations on June 25, 1946, it approved its first loan on May 9, 1947 ($250m to France for postwar reconstruction, in real terms the largest loan issued by the Bank to date). The Bretton Woods system was a international monetary framework of fixed exchange rates after World War II. Drawn up by the U.S. and Britain in 1944. Keynes was one of the architects. The Bretton Woods system ended on August 15, 1971, when President Richard Nixon ended trading of gold at the fixed price of $35/ounce.

Dumbarton Oaks/United Nations-The Dumbarton Oaks Conference was held between August and October 1944. The principal objective of Dumbarton Oaks was to discuss the possibilities of creating an international organisation that would maintain world peace after the end of World War Two. In fact, there was not one meeting at Dumbarton Oaks, but a series of meetings. These meetings were attended by representatives of the Soviet Union, Great Britain, the United States and China. The structure and form of a United Nations had to be discussed though the primary issue was the make-up of the Security Council and what its relationship would be to the League of Nations that was still in existence. The main issue at stake was the use of the power of veto in the Security Council. This was to come to light at the Yalta meeting again and continued at the San Francisco conference of April to June 1945.

Full Employment Act-(1946), stated the government's responsibility for maintaining high employment levels and established the Council of Economic Advisers to advise the president and help assure a healthy national economy. The act has its roots in the Great Depression of the 1930s and in the economic policy associated with English economist John Maynard Keynes, which largely became federal policy. Central to the policy was the government's role in managing long-term economic demand (through price competition and regulation of interstate trade), which would ensure full employment. Although ultimately the economic policy was dismantled, the Employment Act was important for establishing the role of professional economists in the government and tasking the government with the creation of a systematic economic plan.

Loyalty Boards-Committees that were set up to determine the loyalty of workers in government jobs in the 1940’s and 1950’s. If you were designated as a threat to the US, then you could be blacklisted or if you were a recent immigrant, deported.

Taft-Hartley Act-1947, passed by the U.S. Congress, officially known as the Labor-Management Relations Act. Sponsored by Senator Robert Alphonso Taft and Representative Fred Allan Hartley, the act qualified or amended much of the National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act of 1935, the federal law regulating labor relations of enterprises engaged in interstate commerce, and it nullified parts of the Federal Anti-Injunction (Norris-LaGuardia) Act of 1932. The act established control of labor disputes on a new basis by enlarging the National Labor Relations Board and providing that the union or the employer must, before terminating a collective-bargaining agreement, serve notice on the other party and on a government mediation service. The government was empowered to obtain an 80-day injunction against any strike that it deemed a peril to national health or safety. The act also prohibited jurisdictional strikes (dispute between two unions over which should act as the bargaining agent for the employees) and secondary boycotts (boycott against an already organized company doing business with another company that a union is trying to organize), declared that it did not extend protection to workers on wildcat strikes, outlawed the closed shop, and permitted the union shop only on a vote of a majority of the employees.

Truman Doctrine-Truman found himself beset by new and serious problems when the war ended in 1945. In Europe our former ally, the Soviet Union, had become hostile to United States interests. Additionally, the Soviets  heightened international anxiety when they seized control of several small Eastern European countries and threatened the independence of Turkey and Greece. Soviet-supported communist guerilla actions in Greece, and Soviet diplomatic pressures in Turkey, were causes for great concern to President Truman. He believed the unrest in Greece and the overt Soviet political actions in Turkey were blatant attempts to establish a strong communist presence in the region. Truman also felt that the spread of Soviet hegemony was inimical to the national interests of the United States, especially in the non-Communist parts of the Balkans, Asia Minor, and the Persian Gulf region. In support of his views, Truman initiated an emergency request in March 1947 for $400 million dollars to aid Greece and Turkey, a request which came to be known as the Truman Doctrine. In

George Kennan/Containment-The term containment describes the foreign policy strategy pursued by the United States after the Second World War. The term was introduced into the public debate by George F. Kennan, a diplomat and U.S. State Department adviser on Soviet affairs. In his famous anonymous X-article Kennan suggested a "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies." The Strategy of Containment found its first application in the Truman Doctrine of 1947, which guaranteed immediate economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey. John Lewis Gaddis has argued that all post-1945 U.S. foreign policy doctrines and concepts were in some way "Strategies of Containment."

Marshall Plan-The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, channeled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951. The Marshall Plan successfully sparked economic recovery, meeting its objective of "restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole." The plan is named for Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who announced it in a commencement speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947. At the time, Americans perceived the plan as a generous subvention to Europe. The Soviet Union, however, viewed the Marshall Plan as an attempt to interfere in the internal affairs of other states and refused to participate. Ultimately, the Soviets prevented Poland and Czechoslovakia from taking part, despite their eagerness to do so. Revisionist historians have challenged the assertion that the plan represented American altruism. They have argued that the export of dollars to Europe kept the United States from backsliding into depression by providing a market for U.S. capital goods. The Marshall Plan, according to revisionists, allowed the United States to remake the European economy in the image of the American economy. The plan promoted European economic integration and federalism, and created a mixture of public organization of the private economy similar to that in the domestic economy of the United States. This reorganization of the European economy provided a more congenial environment for American investment.

Brussels Pact-The initial stages of European integration began with the Brussels Pact of 1948, which created the first post-war European intergovernmental organisation when the UK, France, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg agreed to establish a common defence system and to consult on economic and cultural matters. Since governments - especially the British - remained reluctant to cede authority to a supranational body, the organisation was based on co-operation rather than on formal integration. It was, therefore, more of a talking shop than anything else. The military aspects of the pact were soon overshadowed by the creation in 1949 of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an expanded military alliance including the United States and Canada. In the political sphere, the Council of Europe - organized in The Hague the same year by the five members of the Brussels Pact along with Ireland, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and Sweden - had as its goal greater European co-operation and the protection of human rights.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), sometimes called North Atlantic Alliance, Atlantic Alliance or the Western Alliance, is an international organisation for defence collaboration established in 1949, in support of the North Atlantic Treaty signed in Washington, DC, on April 4, 1949.

Warsaw Pact-The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty, officially named the Treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance, was a military alliance of the Eastern European Eastern Bloc countries, who intended to organize against the perceived threat from the NATO alliance (which had been established in 1949). The creation of the Warsaw Pact was prompted by the integration of a "re-militarized" West Germany into NATO via ratification of the Paris Agreements. The Warsaw treaty was drafted by Nikita Khrushchev in 1955 and signed in Warsaw on May 14, 1955. The pact came to an end on March 31, 1991, and was officially dissolved at a meeting in Prague on July 1, 1991.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)-The McCarran Act created a similar investigative committee structure in the Senate. HUAC was also instrumental in making sure the Hollywood blacklist worked the way anticommunists wanted. According to critics like Victor Navasky, HUAC helped create a climate in which there were fewer than ever films with "social themes." The logic of HUAC investigations implied an anticommunist theory of language. HUAC led the way, in the late 1930s, in conservative attacks on federally supported art. In one of its reports, HUAC offered lines from the poetry of Sir Walter Scott in defense of its activities.

Whitaker Chambers/Alger Hiss-U.S. journalist and spy. He joined the U.S. Communist party in 1925 and wrote for its newspaper before engaging (1935-38) in espionage for the USSR. He left the party in 1939 and began working for Time magazine. In 1948 he testified before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, accusing Alger Hiss , president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a former State Dept. official, of being a Communist party member. Hiss sued for libel, and Chambers then accused him of having been part of an espionage ring. Chambers, now being promoted by Congressman Richard Nixon , led investigators to his Maryland farm, where he produced from a hollowed-out pumpkin State Dept. documents he alleged Hiss had given him. Hiss was indicted for perjury, and after two trials was found guilty (1950) and imprisoned. The case was extremely controversial, and both men were vehemently attacked and defended.

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg-Were American Communists who captured and maintained world attention after being tried, convicted, and executed for spying for the Soviet Union. The accuracy of these charges remains controversial, though decades later, Soviet communications decrypted by the VENONA project became publicly available and appeared to indicate that at least Julius Rosenberg was actively involved in espionage (although they provided no new evidence that he performed the specific acts of espionage for which he was convicted). The couple were the only two American civilians to be executed for conspiracy to commit espionage during the Cold War. In imposing the death penalty, Judge Irving Kaufman noted that he held them responsible not only for espionage but also for the deaths of the Korean War

McCarran Internal Security Act-Pat McCarran was the chairman of the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee that investigated the administrations headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman. In September 1950, McCarran and John Wood, chairman of the Un-American Activities Committee, sponsored the passing of the Internal Security Act. The Internal Security Act, also known as the McCarran-Wood Act, required registration with the Attorney General of the American Communist Party and affiliated organizations. Other sections of the act declared it unlawful to conspire to establish a totalitarian dictatorship, to conceal membership of the American Communist Party when seeking government employment or to use a United States passport. Communists and members of other organizations considered to be dangerous to public safety could also be excluded or deported from the United States.

Joseph McCarthy-U.S. senator from Wisconsin (1947–57), b. near Appleton, Wis. He practiced law in Wisconsin and became (1940) a circuit judge. He served with the U.S. marines in the Pacific in World War II, achieving the rank of captain. In 1946, McCarthy defeated Senator Robert M. La Follette, Jr., for the Republican senatorial nomination and then overwhelmed his Democratic opponent in the election. His career in the Senate was undistinguished and obscure until Feb., 1950, when he won national attention with a speech at Wheeling, W.Va., in which he charged that the State Dept. had been infiltrated by Communists. Although a Senate investigating committee under Millard Tydings exonerated the State Dept. and branded the charges a fraud and a hoax, McCarthy repeated his claims in a series of radio and television appearances. Challenged to produce his evidence, he refused and instead made new accusations. When the Republicans assumed control of Congress in 1953, McCarthy, who had been reelected in 1952, became chairman of the Senate permanent investigations subcommittee (Government Operations Committee), a post in which he wielded great power; he used his position to exploit the public's fear of Communism. Through widely publicized hearings, the use of unidentified informers, and reckless accusation, McCarthy doggedly pursued those whom he classified as Communists and subversives. Careers were ruined on the flimsiest evidence, and his methods came under increasing attack by the press and his colleagues.

Army-McCarthy Hearings- In Apr., 1954, McCarthy accused Secretary of the Army Robert T. Stevens and his aides of attempting to conceal evidence of espionage activities that McCarthy and his staff had allegedly uncovered at Fort Monmouth, N.J. The army, in turn, accused McCarthy, his chief counsel, and a staff member of seeking by improper means to obtain preferential treatment for a former consultant to the subcommittee, then a private in the army. After widely publicized hearings McCarthy and his aides were cleared (Aug., 1954) of the army's charges. However, in December the Senate, acting on a motion of censure against him, voted to "condemn" McCarthy for contempt of a Senate elections subcommittee that had investigated his conduct and financial affairs in 1952, for abuse of certain senators, and for insults to the Senate itself during the censure proceedings.

Edward R. Murrow-Edward R. Murrow set the standard for television journalism that continues to challenge and inspire today's television newspersons. His calm and courageous reporting captured our nation's and the world's attention during the German Blitz of Great Britain in 1940 and 1941 and remained firm while confronting the paranoia of McCarthyism at home in 1954.

Korean War-From June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953, was a conflict between North Korea and South Korea. It was also a Cold War proxy war between the United States and its United Nations allies and the communist powers of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union (also a UN member nation). The principal combatants were North and South Korea. Principal allies of South Korea included the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, although many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations. Allies of North Korea included the People's Republic of China, which supplied military forces, and the Soviet Union, which supplied combat advisors and aircraft pilots, as well as arms, for the Chinese and North Korean troops. In the United States, the conflict was termed a police action (as the Korean Conflict) under the aegis of the United Nations rather than a war, largely in order to remove the necessity of a Congressional declaration of war.

General Douglas MacArthur- June of 1950, the sudden outbreak of the Korean War -- "Mars' last gift to an old warrior" -- thrust MacArthur back into the limelight. Placed in command of an American-led coalition of United Nations forces, MacArthur reversed the dire military situation in the early months of the war with a brilliant amphibious assault behind North Korean lines at the Port of Inchon. But within weeks of this great triumph he and Washington miscalculated badly. MacArthur's approach to the Chinese border triggered the entry of Mao's Communist Chinese, and as 1951 dawned, they faced what he called "an entirely new war." Although the able leadership of General Matthew B. Ridgway stabilized the military situation near the prewar boundary at the 38th parallel, MacArthur's months of public and private bickering with the Truman administration soon came to a head. On April 11, 1951, the President relieved General MacArthur, triggering a firestorm of protest over our strategy not only in Korea, but in the Cold War as a whole. As the last great general of World War II to come home, MacArthur received a hero's welcome. Despite his dramatic televised address to a joint session of Congress, however, the issue died quickly, and with it any hopes MacArthur had of reaching the White House in 1952.

McCarran-Walter Immigration and Nationality Act- (June 30, 1952), law, also known as the Immigration and Nationality Act, tightening controls over aliens and immigrants. The act replaced the National Origins Act of 1924 and modified the 1929 quota formula by allowing a limited number of Asians to enter the United States. The law removed racial barriers and made citizenship available to people of all origins for the first time, but required screening of aliens to eliminate security risks.

Dwight D. Eisenhower- 34^th President of the US from 1953-1961. He was the allied commander of the D-Day invasion. He was responsible for the creation of NASA

Organization of American States- The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–90, at the First International Conference of American States. Gathered together in Washington, D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the "International Commercial Bureau" at the Second International Conference in 1901–02). These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which today's OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins.At the Fourth International Conference of American States (Buenos Aires, 1910), the name of the organization was changed to the "Union of American Republics" and the Bureau became the "Pan American Union".The Ninth International Conference of American States was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948 (in effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the world's first general human rights instrument.

Earl Warren- During his fourteen years as district attorney, Warren developed a reputation as a crime fighter. As a prosecutor Warren was sometimes accused of high-handedness in his methods, but in thirteen years and in thousands of cases ranging from murder to window-breaking, he never had a conviction reversed by a higher court. Warren was a member of the Board of Regents of the University of California. Although a Republican, Warren had broad bipartisan support because of his centrist to liberal views. He is the only person to have been elected to the governorship of California for three successive terms (in 1942, 1946, and 1950). In 1946 he was the only governor in our history to win an election unopposed, for he won both the Democratic and the Republican primaries. In 1948 Warren was the Republican Party's nominee for vice-president of the United States on a ticket headed by the popular Thomas A. Dewey. (That famous election was the only one Warren ever lost.) Interestingly, one of Warren's unsuccessful campaigns as governor was for universal health care. In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren the fourteenth Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Among the Warren Court's most important decisions was the ruling that made racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. Another was the "one-man one-vote" ruling that caused a major shift in legislative power from rural areas to cities.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)-Alliance organized (1954) under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty by representatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Established under Western auspices after the French withdrawal from Indochina, SEATO was created to oppose further Communist gains in Southeast Asia. The treaty was supplemented by a Pacific Charter, affirming the rights of Asian and Pacific peoples to equality and self-determination and setting forth goals of economic, social, and cultural cooperation between the member countries. The civil and military organizations established under the treaty had their headquarters in Bangkok, Thailand. SEATO relied on the military forces of member nations and joint maneuvers were held annually. SEATO’s principal role was to sanction the U.S. presence in Vietnam, although France and Pakistan withheld support. Unable to intervene in Laos or Vietnam due to its rule of unanimity, the future of the organization was in doubt by 1973, and SEATO was ultimately disbanded in 1977.

 

Argued:	December 8, 1952
Reargued:	December 7, 1953
Decided:	May 17, 1954
Subjects:	Civil Rights: Desegregation, Schools
Facts of the Case Black children were denied admission to public schools attended by white children under laws requiring or permitting segregation according to the races. The white and black schools approached equality in terms of buildings, curricula, qualifications, and teacher salaries. This case was decided together with Briggs v. Elliott and Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County.
Question Presented Does the segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprive the minority children of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment?
Conclusion Yes. Despite the equalization of the schools by "objective" factors, intangible issues foster and maintain inequality. Racial segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on minority children because it is interpreted as a sign of inferiority. The long-held doctrine that separate facilities were permissible provided they were equal was rejected. Separate but equal is inherently unequal in the context of public education. The unanimous opinion sounded the death-knell for all forms of state-maintained racial separation.

AFL-CIO-In February 1955, representatives of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations met in Miami Beach and reached accord on a merger that would end more than 20 years of union rivalry. The leaders of both factions agreed that a reunited labor movement would give working Americans more muscle and tenor. Under the plan, each union in each organization was to remain autonomous, and each was to maintain its jurisdiction--important considerations for the Seafarers International Union of North America and its affiliate, the Brotherhood of Marine Engineers. Mergers between or among unions were to be voluntary.

Baghdad Pact- The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, the successor to the Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad Pact) was adopted in 1955 by Iraq, Turkey, Iran, as well as United States chose not to initially participate as to avoid alienating Arab states with whom it was still attempting to cultivate friendly relations. In 1958 the United States finally joined the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances. Modeled after the North Atlantic Treaty Organization it committed the nations to mutual cooperation and protection, as well as non-intervention in each other's affairs. Its goal was to contain the Soviet Union by having a line of strong states along its southwestern frontier. In 1959, Iraq, under its new Republican regime, backed out of the Baghdad Pact. Thus, CENTO was created to replace the now-defunct pact.

Geneva Conference- The Geneva Conference (April 26 - July 21, 1954) was a conference between many countries that agreed to restore peace in Indochina and Korea.

Montgomery Bus Boycott- On the morning of Dec. 5, the African-American residents of the city refused to use the buses. Most walked, those few with cars arranged rides for friends and strangers, some even rode mules. Only a very small number of African-Americans rode the bus that day. Dr. King and the other African-American community leaders held another meeting to organize future action. They named their organization the Montgomery Improvement Association and elected Dr. King as its president. As the boycott continued the white community fought back with terrorism and harassment. The car-pool drivers were arrested for picking up hitchhikers. African-Americans waiting on street corners for a ride were arrested for loitering. On January 30, 1956 Dr. King's home was bombed. His wife and their baby daughter escaped without injury. When Dr. King arrived home he found an angry mob waiting. Dr. King told the crowd to go home.

"We must learn to meet hate with love" he said.

The boycott continued for over a year. It eventually took the United States Supreme Court to end the boycott. On November 13, 1956 the Court declared that Alabama's state and local laws requiring segregation on buses were illegal. On December 20th federal injunctions were served on the city and bus company officials forcing them to follow the Supreme Court's ruling.

Eisenhower Doctrine- The message was given to Congress on Janua